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THE 

DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION 

OF 

OIL ENGINES 

WITH FULL DIRECTIONS FOR 

ERECTING, TESTING, INSTALLING 
RUNNING AND REPAIRING 

Including descriptions of American and English 
KEROSENE OIL ENGINES 

By A. H. GOLDINGHAM, M.E. 



Fully Illustrated 



NEW YORK : 
SPON & CHAMBERLAIN, 12 CORTLANDT ST. 

LONDON : 

E. & F. N. SPON, Ltd., 125 STRAND 

1900 



88992 



6^ 



Library of Con^i 

Two Copies Received 
DEC 151900 

Copyright entry 

1 , I C\ O 

SECONOCOPy 
GH0£ft OMSON 

DEC 18 1900 



Entered According to Act of Congress in the Year 1900, by 

ARTHUR HUGH GOLDINGHAM 

In the Office of the Librarian of Congress, Washington, D. C. 






V 



THE BURR PRINTING HOUSE, FRANKFORT AND JACOB. STS. , N. Y. , U. 6. A. 



PREFACE 



This work has been written with the intention of 
supplying practical information regarding the kero- 
sene or oil engine, and in response to frequent re- 
quests received by the writer to recommend such a 
book. 

Whilst many works have been published on the 
subject of gas engines, some of which refer to or 
describe the working of the oil engine, no other book, 
it is believed, is devoted entirely to the oil engine 
in detail. 

The work, it is hoped, will be found useful to the 
draughtsman, the engine attendant, as well as to those 
who own or are about to install Oil Engines. 

The classification of vaporizers has been adhered 
to as made some few years ago, and a representative 
engine with each type is described. 

The matter on design and construction is founded 
on practical experience, the formulae, it is believed, 
being in accordance with the best modern practice. 

Chapter III. on Testing is based on the writer's 
personal experience in the testing-room. 



IV PREFACE. 

The writer is particularly indebted to Mr. George 
Richmond for many valuable suggestions, and also for 
reading the proof-sheets, and he wishes to acknowledge 
assistance from many firms, amongst which may be 
mentioned Ingersoll Sargeant Drill Company for 
Table III., Mr. Frank Richards for Table II., The 
De La Vergne Company for Table IV., London 
Engineer, Tables V. and VI. Table I. is partly taken 
from Mr. William Norris's book on the Gas Engine, 
and Tables VII., VIII., IX., and X., at the end of the 
book, relating to different oils, are taken (with per- 
mission) from Mr. Boverton Redwood's valuable 
work on Petroleum. And to the Engineering News 
for permission to use Figs. 44b and 44c. The Crosby 
Steam Gauge Company have also supplied informa- 
tion relating to the indicator and planimeter. 

A. H. GOLDINGHAM. 

New York, November 1, 1900. 



CONTENTS. 



CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER I. 

INTRODUCTORY. PAGE 

Historical — Classification of Oil Engines — Various 
Vaporizers — Different Igniting and Spraying De- 
vices — The Different Cycles of Valve Movements 1-19 

CHAPTER II. 

ON DESIGNING OIL ENGINES. 

Simplicity in Construction and 'Arrangement of Parts 
— Comparison of Oil and Gas Engines — Cyl- 
inders, Different Types — Cylinder Clearance — 
Crank-shaft, Dimensions and Formulae — Balanc- 
ing of Crank-shafts Described — Connecting-rods, 
Strengths, etc. — Piston, Piston-rings — Piston 
speed — Fly-wheels, Formula for — Air and Ex- 
haust Cams — Cylinder Lubricators — Valves and 
Valve-boxes — Velocity of Air through Valves — 
Crank-shaft Bearings — Proportions of Engine 
Frame — Crank-pin Dimensions — Valve Mechan- 
isms, Gearing and Levers — Governing Devices — 
Exhaust Bends — Oil-supply Pump — Oil-tank and 
Filter — Comparison of Horizontal and Vertical 
Type Engines, with Advantages of Each — Two- 
• cylinder Engines Discussed — Assembling of Oil- 
engines — Scraping in Bearings — Fitting of Piston 
and Piston-rings — Fitting Connecting-rod Bear- 
ings — Fitting Air and Exhaust Valves — Test- 
ing Water-jackets — Fly-wheel Keys — Oil-supply 
Pipes — Cylinder Made in Two or More Parts, . . 20-58 



VI CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER III. 

TESTING ENGINES. 

PAGE 

Object of Testing — Comparison with Steam-engines — 
Different Records to be Taken — Diagram for set- 
ting Valves — Preparing for Test — Heating of Va- 
porizer — Starting— Difficulties of Starting — Com- 
pression, How to Test — Leakage of Valves and 
Cylinder — Lubrication of Piston and Bearings — 
Easing Piston — Synonymous Terms for Power De- 
veloped — Indicated Horse-power — Brake, Horse- 
power — Indicator Fully Described — Reducing 
Motions — Planimeters — Indicator-cards described 
in Detail and Analyzed — Defects as Shown by 
Indicator — How to Remedy Same — Early and 
Late Ignition, How to Alter — The Compression 
and Expansion Lines — Choked Exhaust — Mean 
Effective Pressure, How to Increase — Back Pres- 
sure of Exhaust — Tachometers — Fuel-consump- 
tion Test Fully Described — Mechanical Efficiency 
— Thermal Efficiency — Table of Disposition of 
Heat — Valve Diagram — Exhaust Gases — Complete 
and Incomplete Combustion — Testing the Flash- 
point of Kerosene — Viscosometer, 59-95 



CHAPTER IV. 

COOLING WATER-TANKS AND OTHER DETAILS. 

Water Connections — Capacity of Tanks Required — 
Gravitation System of Circulation — Water-pumps 
— Connection to City Water Main — Temperature 
of Outlet Water — Emptying Pipes in Frosty 
Weather — Salt Water — Exhaust Silencers— Brick 
Pit, How to Construct — Exhaust-Gas Deodorizer, 



CONTENTS. t Vll 

PAGE 
How to Connect — Connecting Circulating Water 
to Exhaust-pipe — Self-starters, Why Necessary 
— Utilizing Waste Heat of Exhaust Gases and of 
Cooling Water, Different Methods — Exhaust 
Temperature, 96-110 



CHAPTER V. 

OIL ENGINES DRIVING DYNAMOS. 

Isolated Plants — Advantages of Oil Engines as Com- 
pared with Gas and Steam Engines — Installation 
of Plant — Foundation, How to Build, Ingredients 
— Correct Location of Engine and Dynamo — ■ 
Belts — Balance-wheel on Armature Shaft — Power 
Required for Incandescent and Arc Lamps — 
Losses of Power by Belt and Otherwise — Regu- 
lation of Engine Required for Electric Lighting — 
Direct-connected Plants, Advantages of Same — ■ 
Variations in Incandescent Lights, Causes, How 
to Remedy — Silencing Air-suction, .. .. .. 111-122 



CHAPTER VI. 

OIL ENGINES CONNECTED TO AIR-C0M PRESSORS, WATER-PUMPS, ETC. 

Direct-connected and Geared Air-compressing Outfits, 
with Dimensions and Pressures Obtained — Calcu- 
lations of Horse-power Required — Tables of Pres- 
sures and Other Data — Efficiencies at Different 
Altitudes— Pumping Outfits Described in Detail, 
with Dimensions — How to Calculate Horse-power 
Required — Oil Engines Driving Ice and Refrig- 
erating Machines, Calculations of Power Required 
— Friction-clutches, . . . . . . . . . . 123-138 



Vlll CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER VII. 

INSTRUCTIONS FOR RUNNING OIL ENGINES. 



PAGE 



General Instructions and Remarks — Cylinder Lubri- 
cating Oil — Instructions in Detail as to Running 
Hornsby-Akroyd Type, the Crossley Type, the 
Campbell Type, and the Priestman Type of Oil 
Engine — General Remarks — Regulation of Speed 
— How to Reverse Direction of Running of En- 
gine, with Diagrams of Valve Settings, .. .. 139-156 



CHAPTER VIII. 

REPAIRS. 

Drawing Piston — Taking Off Piston-ring — Grinding 
in of Valves — Adjustment of Crank-shaft and 
Connecting-rod Bearings-^How to Fit New 
Piston-ring to Cylinder — Fitting New Skew and 
Spur Gear — Renewing Governor Parts, . . . . 157-160 



CHAPTER IX. 

VARIOUS ENGINES DESCRIBED. 

General Description, with Illustrations of Different 
American and English Oil Engines — Method of 
Working — Sectional Cuts — The Crossley — The 
Cundall — The Campbell — The Priestman — The 
Mietz and Weiss — The Hornsby-Akroyd — The 
Diesel — Portable Oil Engines Described and 
Illustrated, 161-183 



TABLES. 



PAGE 

I. Sizes of Crank-shafts, . . . . . . . . 27 

II. Various Air Pressures, 126-127 

III. Efficiencies of Air Compressors at Different 

Altitudes, . . . . . . . . . . 129 

IV. Mean Pressure of Diagram of Gas (Ammonia) 

Compressor, . . . . . . . . . . 135 

j Tests of Various Oil Engines Made in Edin- 

VL ( burgh, 184-185 

VII. Calorific Power of Various Descriptions of 

Petroleum, etc., . . . . . . . . 186 

VIII. Composition, Physical Properties, etc., of Vari- 
ous Descriptions of Petroleum, . . . . 187 

IX. Oil Fuel, 188 

X. Calorific Power of Crude Petroleum, . . . . 188 

Index, 189-196 



LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 



XI 



LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 









PAGE 


Abel Oil-tester, 




.. 91 


American-Thompson Indicator, 






. 65 


Apparatus for Open Fire Test, 






. 91 


Automatic Air Inlet- Valve, 






- 4i 


Beau de Rochas Cycle, Diagram, 






. 16 


Campbell Diagrams, 






. 167 


Campbell Sprayer, 






. 5 


Campbell Type Engine, 






. 166 


Cams, Air and Exhaust, 






. 37 


Connecting-rod, 






• 3i 


Connecting-rod Bearings, 






. 159 


Connecting-rod, Phosphor-bronze, 






.. 32 


Crank-shaft Bearing, 






. 54 


Crank-shafts, Balanced, 






. . 28 


Crank-shafts, Slab Type, 






. 26 


Crosby Indicator, .. .. 






.. 68 


Crossley JDiagrams, . . . . 






.. 163 


Crossley Sprayer, . . . . . . 






.. 4 


Crossley Type Engine, .. 






. . 162 


Cundall Type Engine, . . . . 






. . 164 


Cylinder, .. .. .. .. .. 






. . 22 


Cylinder, . . .... 






. . 24 


Diagram of Valve-settings, 






. . 60 


Diagrams, Reversing Engine and Cams, 






.. 155 


Diesel Motor, 






.. 178 


Diesel Motor, Indicator Diagram, 






. . 180 



Xll 



LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 



Direct-connected Air-compressing Plant, 

Dynamo Fly-wheel, 

Electric Spark Igniter, 

Engine and Dynamo, Belt-driven, 

Engine and Refrigerating Machine, 

Engine Connected to Water-pump, 

Engine Connected to Water-pump, Small Type, 

Engine foundation, 

Exhaust Silencing Pit, 

Exhaust Washing Device, 

Fly-wheel, 

Friction-clutch, 

Geared Air-Compressing Plant, 

Governor, Centrifugal Type, . . 

Governor, Hit-and-miss Type, . . 

Hill Self-recording Speed Counter, 

Heating Lamp, 

Heating Water-pipe Arrangement, 

Heating Water-pipe Arrangement, 

Hornsby-Akroyd Engine and Dynamo 

Hornsby-Akroyd Horizontal Type, 

Hornsby-Akroyd Sprayer, 

Hornsby-Akroyd Vaporizer, 

Hornsby-Akroyd Vertical Type, 

Indicator Cock, 

Indicator Diagram, 

Indicator Diagram, 

Indicator Diagram, 

Indicator Diagram, 

Indicator Diagram, 

Indicator Diagram, Light Spring, 

Indicator Diagram, Varying Pressures, 

Indicator Diagrams, Hornsby-Akroyd, 

Indicator, Reducing Motion, 

Mietz and Weiss, Indicator Diagram, 

Mietz and Weiss Engine and Dynamo, Direct 



PAGE 

124 
116 
6 
112 
132 
130 

131 
114 
101 
102 

36 
138 
128 

45 
47 
85 

142 
108 
109 
Il8 
174 

10 

3 
175 
66 
76 
77 
79 
80 
82 

89 

46 

176 

67 

172 

-connected, 120 



Direct-connected 



LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 



Xlll 



Mietz and Weiss Type Engine 

Oil Engine with Testing Apparatus Applied, 

Oil-filter, . . 

Oil-pump, 

OU-supply Pipe, 

Piston-ring, . . 

Piston, Section of 

Piston with Piston-rings 

Planimeters, 

Planimeters in Position 

Portable Oil Engine, 

Priestman Engine, 

Priestman Indicator Diag 

Priestman Sprayer, 

Priestman Vaporizer, 

Self-starter, 

Silencing Device, 

Spur-gearing, 

Starting Cam, 

Tachometer, 

Tachometer, portable, 

Testing Oil-pump, 

Two-cycle Plan, . . 

Two-cylinder Engine, 

Valve-box, 

Valve-closing Springs, 

Valve-levers, 

Valve Mechanism, 

Valves, Air and Exhaust 

Viscosometer, 

Water-circulating Pump, 

Water-cooling Tank and Connections, 

Worm Gear, 



PAGE 

171 
62 

49 

144 

48 

35 

34 

56 

72 

74 

182 

169 

170 

14 

13 

106 

104 

44 

143 

84 

85 

147 

17 

52 

39 

40 

146 

44 
42 

94 

98 
97 
43 



CHAPTER I. 
INTRODUCTORY. 

The internal combustion engines which are treated 
of in this work are those using heavy kerosene as fuel, 
otherwise called petroleum, coal oil or Scotch paraffin, 
and similar oils having specific gravity varying from 
.78 to .85 with flashing point of 75 to 300 ° Fahr. 

The use of heavy oil for producing power in internal 
combustion engines appears to have received the at- 
tention of inventors as early as 1790, though no satis- 
factory practical kerosene or petroleum engine is re- 
corded as having been made until about thirty years 
ago. Those engines using the lighter grade fuels, such 
as benzine, or gasoline, or naphtha, were commonly 
used previous to the invention of the kerosene-oil 
engine. The problem of efficiently producing a vapor 
and suitable explosive mixture of air with such vapor 
from these light oils was comparatively a very simple 
matter. Such engines are gas engines proper, with 
simply some form of carburetter added, but they can 
use only gasoline or naphtha as fuel. These are not 
treated of in this book, only oil engines proper being 



2 OIL ENGINES. 

described and discussed. The term oil engine refers to 
an internal combustion engine so designed as to effec- 
tively deal with and convert into, power crude petro- 
leum just as it is pumped from the earth, or any of the 
other fuels already named, without the aid of any out- 
side agency or separate apparatus. 

The production of a satisfactory device for properly 
vaporizing the heavier oils at first offered a problem 
which it was thought difficult to solve, and remained 
so for many years before the efficient vaporizing kero- 
sene engines now in use were constructed. 

Igniters.— The first oil engines built had their 
charge of vaporized oil and air ignited by means of 
the flame igniter, which has, however, now entirely 
given place to the four following means of ignition: 

(a) Hot surface ignition, aided by compression. 

(&) Hot tube. 

(c) Electric igniter. 

(d) High compression only. 

The first-named type of igniter is illustrated in Fig. I. 
In this instance the heated walls of the vaporizer act 
as the igniter, aided by the heat generated during com- 
pression of the gases. The chamber being first heated, 
afterward the proper temperature is maintained by the 
heat caused by the internal combustion of the gases. 
The best-known vaporizer and igniter of this type is 
that in the Hornsby-Akroyd Oil Engine. Various 
other somewhat similar devices in which sufficient heat 
is maintained to cause ignition automatically are also 
now being made. 

The second type, that of the hot tube, is shown in 



INTRODUCTORY. 3 

Fig. 2 and Fig. 3. This igniter consists of a porcelain, 







nickel or wrought-iron tube, which is maintained at red 
heat by external heating lamp, and is placed in the end 



INTRODUCTORY. 



of the combustion chamber space, being always open 
to the cylinder, as shown. 

The electrical igniter is made in various forms ; 



AIR INLET 



OIL INLET 



TO CV UNDERS- 



OIL SUPPLY 




Fig. 3. 



that illustrated in Fig. 4 is of the " jump-spark" type. 
The current from the battery or other source of energy 
is connected to the regular induction or Rhumkorff coil 



O OIL ENGINES. 

in which there are two windings of wire wound on core 
of iron wire, the one being made of coarse w T ire, the 
other winding being of fine wire. Where a vibrator 
is used in connection with the coil, the cam-shaft is 
arranged to close a switch, thus causing a series of 
sparks to jump across from one terminal to the other 
in the cylinder and ignite the gases. Other forms of 




Fig. 4. 



electrical igniters are the New Standard and the 
Splitdorf jump-spark apparatus. 

The fourth-named type of ignition, that due to com- 
pression in the cylinder alone, is found only with the 
Diesel motor. The combustion is one of its unique 
features. In this type of engine the compression pres- 
sure inside the cylinder reaches about 520 pounds per 
square inch, the compression being arranged to con- 
tinue until combustion commences to take place. 

Advantages are claimed for each of these igniting 
devices by the various manufacturers using them. The 



INTRODUCTORY. 7 

electrical igniter is easily controlled and is reliable, but 
the batteries, in unskilled hands, sometimes give 
trouble, and it is essential that the parts forming the 
contacts be kept clean and in good condition ; otherwise 
faulty working of the engine will result. 

The tube igniter always requires heating by the ex- 
ternal heating lamp, upon which it is dependent, like 
all types of vaporizers which require external heat ; so 
likewise is also the tube dependent entirely upon it. 
The former difficulty with ignition tubes and their 
frequent bursting has now been minimized by the use 
of nickel alloy, porcelain or other material more suit- 
able than wrought iron for this purpose. 

The hot surface type of igniter formerly gave trouble 
caused by its temperature cooling down at light loads. 
This type, however, which has now been adopted in 
various forms, has been designed to overcome this dif- 
ficulty, and can now be relied upon to keep hot when 
running at light loads. 

Vaporizers. — As already stated, the problem of 
efficiently vaporizing petroleum was the most difficult 
feature to encounter in designing oil engines. This 
obstacle has been, however, entirely overcome by 
different methods, and of recent years many types of 
engines using kerosene as fuel have been designed, 
and are now working satisfactorily. 

The different types of vaporizers have been classified 
as follows : 

I. The vaporizer into which the charge of oil is 
injected by a spraying nozzle being connected to cylin- 
der through a valve. 



o OIL ENGINES. 

2. That into which the oil is injected, together with 
some air, the larger volume of air, however, entering 
the cylinder through separate valve. 

3. That vaporizer in which the oil and all the air 
supply (passing over it) is injected, but being without 
spraying device. 

4. The type into which oil is injected directly, air 
being drawn into the cylinder by means of a separate 
valve, the explosive mixture being formed only with 
compression. 

With each type of vaporizer some advantage is 
claimed, but corresponding disadvantage can perhaps 
be named. For instance, in type 1, though the mixture 
of oil and air is more complete, and the vaporizing 
probably greater than in the other types, yet the system 
of having an explosive mixture at any other place than 
in the cylinder and at any other period than at the 
time of actual ignition may be urged as a great dis- 
advantage to this system. 

With class 4 the mixture of air and oil may not be 
so complete, and the initial pressure in the cylinder 
consequent upon explosion less than the pressure ob- 
tained w T ith other types ; yet the extreme simplicity of 
this type is an advantage in daily use which cannot be 
overestimated. 

With class 2 the highest mean effective pressure is 
obtained and the lowest consumption of oil per H. P. 
is believed to be recorded, but this type generally re- 
quires a heating lamp to maintain the proper tempera- 
ture, and then on the efficiency of the heating lamp 
depends the efficiency of the engine itself. There have, 



INTRODUCTORY. 9 

in recent years, been perfected some very simple 
smokeless kerosene burning lamps, and this previous 
difficulty has now accordingly been overcome. 

One of the chief difficulties in designing a satisfac- 
tory vaporizer is that of making it such that at all 
loads and under all conditions it will vaporize the fuel. 
The heat of the chamber should be high enough to 
vaporize the oil, but never hot enough to decompose 
the oil, or a deposit of carbon will be made which is 
injurious to the satisfactory working of the vaporizer. 

It would, therefore, appear that each type, while 
possessing features giving it individually an advantage 
as compared with other types, has some detracting 
feature also. The following is a description of the 
various types of vaporizers, showing the four different 
methods named in detail : 

The Hornsby-Akroyd vaporizer is shown at Fig. 
I, and also as it is at present manufactured in Fig. 76, 
which illustrates a complete section of this engine. 
The oil in this method of vaporizing is injected 
through the spray nipple, as shown in Fig. 5, directly 
into the vaporizer by the oil-supply pump. The injec- 
tion of oil into the vaporizer takes place only during 
the air-suction stroke. The lever which actuates the 
air-valve also simultaneously operates the oil-pump. 
When the piston is at the outward end of the cylinder, 
the suction period being then completed, the cylinder 
is filled with atmospheric air, and the vaporizing 
chamber, which is at all times open to the cylinder, is 
also at the same time filled with oil vapor. 

The compression stroke of the piston then com- 



10 



OIL ENGINES. 



mences; the atmospheric air in the cylinder is thus 
driven through the contracted opening between the 
cylinder and the vaporizer into the vaporizer itself, 
already filled with the oil vapor. As compression due 
to the piston movement proceeds, the mixture which 




Fig. 5. 



at first is too rich to explode in the vaporizer gradually 
becomes more diluted with the air, and when the com- 
pression stroke is completed the mixture of oil, vapor 
and air attains proper explosive proportions. The 
mixture is then ignited simply by the hot walls of this 



INTRODUCTORY. II 

same vaporizing chamber and also by the heat gener- 
ated by compression. No other means of ignition is 
necessary. No heating lamp is required to maintain 
the necessary temperature of this vaporizer; a lamp 
is, however, required to heat it for a few minutes 
before starting. 

The Crossley method of vaporizing. This vapor- 
izer is shown in section in Fig. 2. It consists of three 
main parts, the body, the passages, and the chimney 
cover. There are no valves about the vaporizer itself ; 
it is arranged to keep hot, and while not in contact 
with the cooled cylinder is" near to the vapor inlet valve 
to which it delivers its charges. The passages inside 
which vaporization of the oil takes place are detach- 
able. 

The wrought-iron ignition tube is placed below the 
vaporizer communicating directly with the cylinder. A 
heating lamp is always required to heat the vaporizer 
and maintain the ignition tube at proper red heat. The 
method of vaporizing is as follows : 

When the suction stroke of the piston commences the 
oil inlet valve is automatically lifted from its seat and 
allows oil to be drawn into the vaporizer through it. 
The vaporizer blocks having been heated by the inde- 
pendent lamp, and likewise the chimney being hot also, 
heated air is drawn in passing first through the aper- 
tures in the sides of the chimney communicating with 
the passages of vaporizer blocks. The air is thus thor- 
oughly heated, and next it passes over the heated cast- 
iron blocks. To these blocks the oil also flows from 
the oil measurer. The heated air here mingles with 



12 OIL ENGINES. 

the oil and vaporizes it, and the two together properly 
mixed are drawn into the cylinder through the vapor 
valve. Simultaneously, while the above process of 
vaporization is proceeding, air is also entering the 
cylinder through the air-inlet valve on the top of the 
cylinder. Thus, when the suction stroke of the piston 
is completed the cylinder is full of heated oil vapor 
drawn in through the vapor valve, too rich to explode 
by itself, and also atmospheric air drawn in through the 
air valve. Both elements are then compressed by the 
inward stroke of the piston completing the mixture of 
the oil, vapor and air. When compression is com- 
pleted, ignition takes place by the gases coming in con- 
tact with the red-hot ignition tube. 

The Campbell. — This method of vaporizing differs 
from those already described in that the whole charge 
of air to the cylinder is drawn in through the vaporizer. 
No air whatever enters the cylinder otherwise. 

Fig. 3 represents the Campbell vaporizer in section. 
The fuel oil is fed to the vaporizer by gravitation from 
the fuel tank placed above the engine-cylinder, and. 
enters the vaporizer with the incoming air. At the be- 
ginning of the suction stroke the automatic air-inlet 
valve is opened by the partial vacuum in the cylinder, 
and the oil which has entered through the small holes 
at the inlet valve is drawn through the heated vaporizer 
into the cylinder. At the compression stroke the mix- 
ture of the vapor is completed, and being forced into 
the ignition tube is ignited in the ordinary way. The 
ignition tube is heated by heating lamp fed by gravita- 
tion from the oil tank. The same lamp also heats the 



INTRODUCTORY. 



13 



vaporizer as well as the tube. The governing is 
effected by allowing the exhaust-valve to remain open 
when the normal speed is exceeded; consequently no 
charge is in that case drawn into the cylinder. 

The method of vaporizing the oil with the Priest- 
man engine is as follows: 




Fig. 6. 



The oil is stored under pressure in the fuel-tank, 
which pressure is created by the separate air-pump 
actuated from the cam-shaft. The oil is thus forced to 
the sprayer, which device is shown in Fig. 7, where it 
meets a further supply of air. The mixing of the air 
and oil takes place just as both elements are injected 



14 



OIL ENGINES. 



into the vaporizing chamber, as shown in Fig. 6. The 
heating of the vaporizer is first accomplished with sep- 
arate lamp ; afterward, when the engine is working, the 
exhaust gases heat the vaporizer by being carried 
around in the outside passage of the vaporizer cham- 



-: ^'Si^- 




A - Aia Pump Coy/zfcr/ov 

"O " Oil Tank Coknuc tion 

• c ' Oil Passage to SpuAYKiAKe*** 



Fig. 7. 



ber, as shown in Fig. 6. On the outward or suction 
stroke of the piston the mixture of oil vapor and air 
already formed and heated in the vaporizer is drawn 
into the cylinder through the automatic inlet-valve 
shown on the left of Fig. 6. The compression stroke 



INTRODUCTORY*. 1 5 

then takes place in the ordinary course of the Beau de 
Rochas cycle. 

The governing is effected by means of the pendu- 
lum or centrifugal governor, shown at Fig. 7, control- 
ling the amount of air entering the vaporizer as well 
as reducing the supply of oil simultaneously. Thus, 
the explosive mixture is always composed of the same 
proportions of air and oil, but as the supply of air 
is thus curtailed the compression in the cylinder is also 
necessarily reduced when the engine is working at half 
or light load. The governor thus varies the pressure of 
the explosion, reducing it when necessary, but not 
causing at any time the complete omission of an ex- 
plosion. 

The system of throttling the pressure, somewhat 
similar to a steam engine, produces very steady run- 
ning. 

By this system a thorough vaporization of the oil 
takes place. 

The ignition of the gases is caused by electric spark- 
igniter, the spark being timed by contact-pieces ac- 
tuated from the cam-shaft and horizontal rod actuating 
the exhaust-valve, and is of the " jump-spark" type 
as shown in Fig. 4. 

The oil engines now in use and herein described are 
designed with their valve mechanisms arranged to 
work either on the Beau de Rochas cycle, or on the 
two-cycle system. These two cycles are variously des- 
ignated, the former being generally known as the Otto 
cycle, the four-cycle, and sometimes, but erroneously, 
the two-cycle. Correctly, it should be named the Beau 



i6 



OIL ENGINES. 



de Rochas cycle after its inventor. The other cycle 
is generally known as the " two-cycle/' or sometimes 
as the " single cycle/' the first designation, however, 
being correct. With those engines working on the 
Beau de Rochas cycle, which includes now many if 
not all the leading and best known types of engine, 







The Beau de Rochas Cycle. 



the cycle of operation of the valves is as follows : 

(a) Drawing in the air and fuel during the first 
outward stroke of the piston at atmospheric pressure. 

(b) Compression of the mixture during the first re- 
turn stroke of the piston. 

(c) Ignition of the charge and expansion in the 
cylinder during second outward stroke of the piston. 

(d) Exhausting, the products of combustion being 
expelled during the second return stroke of the piston. 

These operations are clearly shown in the accom- 
panying illustration, and thus, in this system, the one 
cycle is completed in two revolutions of the crank- 



INTRODUCTORY. 



17 



shaft or during four strokes of the piston. The im- 
pulse at the piston is obtained only once during the two 
revolutions. 

The second system, named " two-cycle/' is com- 




The Two- Cycle Plan. 



pleted in one revolution, or every two strokes of the 
piston, and is also clearly shown by the accompanying 
illustration. The operation of the valves is as follows : 



l8 OIL ENGINES. 

(a) During the first part of the outward stroke of 
the piston — that is, until the piston uncovers the ex- 
haust-port — expansion is taking place. When the ex- 
haust-port is opened the products of combustion are 
expelled ; the piston then moves a little farther forward 
and uncovers the air-inlet port communicating with 
the crank chamber. The air at slight pressure at once 
rushes into the cylinder, assisting the expulsion of the 
burnt gases, and filling the cylinder with air already 
compressed to five or six pounds in the crank chamber ; 
this completes the first stroke of this cycle. 

(b) The next stroke (being the inward stroke of the 
piston) the supply of incoming air and fuel is first 
taken in; then compression of the charge takes place. 
Ignition follows when the piston reaches the back end. 
These two strokes of the piston, or one revolution of 
the crank-shaft, completes this cycle of operation. 

Advantages and Disadvantages of Both Cycles. 

The Beau de Rochas cycle engine, having only one 
impulse during two revolutions, requires the dimen- 
sion of the cylinder to be greater in order to obtain a 
given power than would be required with the two- 
cycle system. Large and heavy fly-wheels must also 
be fitted to the engine in order to maintain an even 
speed of the crank-shaft. On the other hand, this 
cycle has many advantages. The explosion is con- 
trolled more readily. The idle stroke of the inlet air 
cools the cylinder and allows sufficient time to entirely 
expel the products of combustion, and with this sys-^ 



INTRODUCTORY. 19 

tern no outside air-pump is required, nor is there any 
fear of the compression being irregular by leakage in 
the crank chamber or otherwise. 

With the two-cycle system air must in some way 
be independently compressed. If this is accomplished 
in the crank chamber, then leakage may occur and bad 
combustion follow, with accompanying bad results to 
valves and piston. More cooling water is also needed 
to cool the cylinder, and the proper lubrication of the 
piston may consequently be very difficult to accom- 
plish. With this system steadier running is obtained, 
nor are the heavy fly-wheels required as with the engines 
of the Beau de Rochas cycle. 

Explosive engines were formerly quite extensively 
built to work on the two-cycle plan, either with inde- 
pendent air-pump or by compressing the air in the 
crank chamber, but as soon as the Otto patent expired 
a large number of engines were changed to that sys- 
tem. The former two-cycle engines were not economi- 
cal, and when the economy of the Beau de Rochas or 
Otto cycle was demonstrated its superiority was 
quickly acknowledged. 

Oil engines have more generally been built of the 
four-cycle than other explosive engines. In this work 
only one is described, which is operated on the two- 
cycle system, for which very satisfactory results are 
claimed. 



CHAPTER II. 

ON DESIGNING OIL ENGINES. 

The term " oil engine/' as already stated in Chap- 
ter L, refers here only to those engines using as fuel 
ordinary kerosene or the crude and inferior heavy 
grades of petroleum of specific gravity .79 to .85, the 
power developed being derived from the explosion and 
combustion of a mixture of hydrocarbon gas and air 
similar to the impulse obtained in other internal com- 
bustion engines. Oil engines are similar in principle 
to gas engines, but as the liquid fuel must be vaporized 
or gasefied in an oil engine, an additional apparatus, 
as already fully described in the last chapter, is neces- 
sary to perform this process, which, with a gas engine, 
is accomplished separately and previously in the gas 
works or by " producer" gas plant. 

The formulae used for designing gas engines are 
generally applicable to oil engines also, but a greater 
factor of safety is sometimes allowed with the oil 
engine because it is possible, especially with some types 
of vaporizers, to occasionally have greater pressure of 
explosion than is ordinarily created chiefly by reason 
of improper combustion of the previous charge or by 
the governor having cut out several charges. For this 



ON DESIGNING OIL ENGINES. . 21 

possible increased pressure, the strength of parts 
otherwise sufficient if of smaller dimensions are conse- 
quently increased. The formulae herein given are 
derived chiefly from experience, and are believed to 
be in accordance with the best modern practice, and 
are also taken from well-known gas-engine hand-books 
by kind permission of the authors. 

Explosive engines are of substantial design in or- 
der to withstand the continual shock and vibrations 
incident thereto, and should pre-eminently be as acces- 
sible as possible in the working parts, which may 
require adjustment from time to time when in actual 
service. The starting gear and other parts to be 
handled by the attendant when starting and running 
the engines incident to their operation should be placed 
in close proximity to each other. 

Simplicity in construction is, in the writer's opinion, 
the essential feature of an oil engine. Above all other 
prime movers, the oil engine is a machine intended for 
use in any part of the world where its fuel is obtain- 
able, and where, perhaps, no mechanic is available. 
Accordingly, all the valves should be arranged so as 
to be easily removed for examination and repairs. 
The spraying and igniting device, as well as the vapor- 
izer, should be so designed as to facilitate removal and 
repairs. In short, an oil engine, to be successful 
mechanically and commercially, should be so con- 
structed that it can be successfully worked, cleaned 
and adjusted by entirely unskilled attendants. 

The mean effective pressure evolved in the different 
types of oil engines now in use varies from 40 to 75 



22 



OIL ENGINES. 



lbs., and is less than the pressure obtained in the 
cylinder of gas and gasoline engines, which is often 
as high as 90 lbs. Consequently, to obtain relatively 
the same power, the dimensions of the oil-engine cylin- 
der will be greater than those of the gas engine. 

The cylinder is made in different types, either to 
bolt up to the bed-plate as shown in Fig. 8, or is made 




Fig. 8. 



with faced flanges on the sides to be bolted down to 
the engine bed-plate, as shown in Fig. 9, in both in- 
stances being cast all in one piece. The cylinder as 
manufactured by some European makers is made in 
two and sometimes three parts, with internal joint. 
The inner liner being held at the back end only, the 
front end joint between the liner and the outer cylinder 
is made with rubber ring. • This arrangement leaves 
the inner sleeve free to expand lengthwise, and 



OX DESIGNING OIL ENGINES. 2$ 

also allows the strain of the explosion to be transmitted 
only through the outer cylinder. Except for the larger- 
sized engines of over 40 H. P., the cylinder made in 
one piece is very satisfactory. The circulating water 
space around the cylinder is made as is shown in 
Figs. 8 and 9, being f " to \\" deep, the water inlet 
and outer pipes being so arranged as to allow free and 
efficient circulation of the cooling water around the 
cylinder. By some manufacturers this space for water 
is arranged to cool only that part of the cylinder cover- 
ing the travel of the piston-rings, instead of the whole 
cylinder, as here shown. Other cylinders are cast in 
one piece with the frame or bed-plate having internal 
sleeve. This arrangement has, among other advan- 
tages, that of cheapness, but it has the disadvantage 
that if the cylinder for any reason should require re- 
newing the whole frame must be renewed with it. 

The cylinder cover is made in some engines with the 
valves, air-inlet valve housing or guide inserted into it, 
and with space also in the larger-sized engines ar- 
ranged for cooling water-jacket. Other engines have 
the igniter placed in the cover, while cylinders of the 
type shown in Fig. 8 require no cover, the vaporizer 
flange closing the contracted hole in the end of the 
cylinder. 

The cylinder in all cases should have the valves 
brought as close as possible to the cylinder walls, and 
all ports or passages so arranged as to offer the mini- 
mum amount of internal cooling surface to the hot 
gases of combustion. 

Cylinder Clearance. — The percentage of clear- 



ON DESIGNING OIL ENGINES. 25 

ance in the cylinder is ascertained by dividing the total 
clearance in the cylinder, including all ports or other 
spaces, by the piston displacement. 

The clearance allowed will depend upon the pressure 
of compression as determined by experiment and by 
the indicator diagram, producing properly timed 
ignition and combustion. 

This pressure, it will be noted, on referring to the va- 
rious indicator cards shown herein, now varies in differ- 
ent types of engines from 50 to 70 pounds, which it is 
believed is representative of present practice, with the 
exception of the Diesel motor, which engine com- 
presses to over 500 pounds before combustion takes 
place in the cylinder. This exceedingly high compres- 
sion is rendered possible by the special Diesel system of 
injection of the charge of fuel. 

The fuel in this case enters the cylinder only at the 
extreme end of the stroke of the piston, the compres- 
sion period being then completed. 

The crank-shaft of an oil engine must be made of 
sufficient strength not only to withstand the sudden 
pressure due to ordinary explosion, but also to with- 
stand the strain consequent upon the greater explosive 
pressure which may possibly be caused by previous 
missed explosions, as already described. The crank- 
shaft is proportioned in relation to the area of the 
cylinder and the maximum pressure of explosion and 
the length of stroke. Oil-engine crank-shafts are 
usually made of the " slab type," as shown in Fig. 10. 
It has been said with regard to explosive engines that 
their comparative efficiency may be to a certain extent 



26 



OIL ENGINES. 



gauged by the strength of the crank-shaft, because 
if the crank-shaft is of too small dimensions, it will 
spring with each explosion, causing the fly-wheels to 
run out of truth and also uneven .wear of the bearings. 
Table I. gives a list of dimensions of crank-shafts 
of both oil and gas engines which are made by some 
leading manufacturers, together with the dimensions 
of the cylinder and stroke. 

Different formulae for the dimensions of crank- 




G — > 



shafts are given by various writers on this subject. 
The following, for example (which is recommended 
by the writer), is given by Mr. William Norris. 



D = 



SXl 



120 



5 



load on piston (area of cylinder in inches X 
maximum pressure of explosion. 
/ = length of stroke in feet. 
D = diameter of crank-shaft in inches. 



ON DESIGN] \'(1 oil. ENG] NES. 



27 



This formula, however, neglects the bending action 
duo to the distance of the centre of crank-pin from the 
centre of the bearings. The diameter should be 
thus slightly increased. Mr. Norris also gives a 
lengthy description, with example, of ascertaining all 
the dimensions of the crank-shaft by means of the 
graphic method. 

Table I. — Sizes of Cra k-shafts. 



Cylinder. 


A. 


B. 


C. 


D. 


E. 


F. 


G. 


Diam. 


Stroke. 


in. 


in. 


in. 


i . 


in. 


ft in 


in. 


5 


8 


if 


Il 


4 


1* 


2 


H 


2* 


51 


9 


2* 


3 


4i 


** 


2| 


H 


3t 


7i 


1 1 


?! 


3i 


Si 


*f 


3 


9\ 


41 


8* 


15 


3i 


4 


7i 


2 8 L 


3* 


12 i 


5 


Sir 


18 


3i 


4 


9 


3 


3i 


1 2 


5 


9i 


18 


3l 


4i 


9 


3 s 


3i 


1 3 


5i 


12 


18 


4i 


4i 


9 


3* 


4i 


1 3t 


6i 


»* 


21 


4i 


4f 


10I 


4 


3* 


1 3i 


H 


14 


21 


Si 


51 


io| 


4* 


4± 


1 5 


8* 


17 


24 


7 


8 


12 


5* 


7* 


1 io 1 


IO 


J 9 


30 


7* 


8 


13 


6 


9 


2 2 


I I 


7 


12 


2 1 6 


2f 


6 


2fV 


2 # 


8| 


?3. 
34 


9 


14 


2 1 c 


3 


7 


2* 


2 .a 

3s 




4 


11 


T 5 


3tt 


4 


7* 


2- 9 - 
Z 1 6 


4* 


«4 


4f 


i3i 


16 


,11 

Ol 6 


4l 


8 


016 


4i 


i3f 


5f 



The balancing of crank-shafts and reciprocating 
parts is another important feature of an oil engine. 
With a single-cylinder explosive engine to perfectly 
accomplish the balancing is impracticable. Most manu- 
facturers, therefore, only balance their engines as far 




WH 



T L --- 



"tl 



-c 



(Spr: 



'-I 






ON DESIGNING OIL ENGINES. 20, 

as the horizontal movement is concerned. The follow- 
ing formulae is considered correct, and has proved 
satisfactory for the horizontal type of engines : 

(CXR)+G+(SXr) 

w = . 

a 

iv = weight in lbs. of balance weight. 

C = crank-pin and rotating part of connecting-rod 
in lbs. 

R = radius of crank circle in inches. 

G = two-thirds weight of all remaining reciprocat- 
ing parts in lbs. 

£ = weight of crank-arms in lbs. 

r = distance of centre of gravity of crank-arms 
from centre of rotation. 

a = distance of centre of gravity of counterweight 
from centre of rotation. 

Some designers, however, the writer has observed, 
make the crank balance weights as large as space be- 
tween bearings and engine bed will allow — that is, 
when the weights are fastened to the crank-arms, as 
shown in Fig. n, thus overbalancing the crank and 
reciprocating parts. While this would appear bad 
practice, such engines have been known to run without 
the slightest vibration. For the ve.rtical type of engines 
the whole weight of the reciprocating parts, instead of 
two-thirds weight, has been satisfactorily taken. 

Crank-shafts of explosive engines are sometimes bal- 
anced by metal suitably placed on the rim or hub of the 
fly-wheel ; otherwise some wheels are made with recess 



30 OIL ENGINES. 

left in rim placed just in line with crank-pin, so that 
the metal left out of the rim of the fly-wheel will 
equalize the metal which is contained in the crank-pin 
and other parts to be balanced. Balancing by means of 
the recess at the outer radius of the fly-wheel has the 
advantage of requiring no extra metal, and is cheaper 
as regards workmanship as compared with the system 
as shown in Fig. n. In each of these methods, how- 
ever, the fly-wheel itself is out of balance, and when 
revolving tends to make the crank-shaft run out of 
truth. 

The more expensive method of placing balance 
weights on the cheek of the crank-shaft itself, as shown 
in Fig. ii, is considered by the writer the most satis- 
factory method. In this way the crank-pin and recip- 
rocating parts are themselves separately balanced re- 
gardless of the fly-wheels, and the fly-wheel being itself 
also balanced, when running allows the crank-shaft to 
remain absolutely true. Further, it is also advan- 
tageous to core small recesses in the fly-wheel rim, to 
be filled up, if required, with lead so as to exactly bal- 
ance the wheel should it, from inequality in casting, 
be heavier in one part than in another. This, how- 
ever, is only requisite in special cases, or w T here the 
engine is running at a very high rate of speed. 

Connecting-rods are made of various designs in 
cross-section, but that chiefly used is made of soft steel 
and circular, with marine type brasses at crank-pin end 
and similar bearings at the piston or small end. By 
some makers the latter bearing is made with adjust- 
able wedge and screw, the end of the connecting-rod 



o\ DESIGN [NG OIL ENG1 NTES. 



31 



then being slotted out, with brass bushes fitted into it, 
as shown at Fig. 12. For small engines a good and 
cheap form of connecting-rod is made of phosphor- 
bronze metal, as shown in Fig. 13. 




Fig. 12. 



The connecting-rod of a single-acting engine has, 
chiefly, compression strains to withstand ; both the 
outer end bearings have little or no strain on them, 
except that due to momentum of the reciprocating 
parts. The connecting-rod should be from two to 



32 



OIL ENGINES. 



three strokes in length. In computing its strength, 
the connecting-rod can be taken as a strut supported 





Fig. 13. 
at either end. The mean diameter when made of mild 



ON DESIGNING OIL ENGINES. 33 

steel is arrived at by the following formulae, as given 
by authorities on steam-engine design : 



x = 0.035 \ D I Vm. 

x = mean diameter of connecting-rod (half sum of 
diameter of both ends). 

D = diameter of cylinder in inches. 

/ = distance in inches between centre of connecting- 
rod. 

;// = maximum explosive pressure in lbs. per square 
inch. 

This formula, however, is excessive for medium 
and slow speed engines, and in such instances the 
writer has used the following formulae with satisfac- 
tory results — namely : 



0.028 Vd iVm. 

The piston in single-acting engines is generally of 
the trunk pattern, as shown in Fig. 14, with internal 
gudgeon-pin placed in the centre of the piston, secured 
at either end to the piston by set-screws. The steam- 
engine cross-head and slide-bars are dispensed with, 
the power being transmitted directly from the gudgeon- 
pin of the piston to the crank. 

The piston is made of hard close-grained iron, and 
should not be less than 5-16" in thickness for small 
engines and slightly heavier for the larger sizes. In 



34 



OIL ENGINES. 



each case the metal is thicker at the back, than at 
the front end. -~ The piston is usually 1.6 diameters in 
length. Three cast-iron piston-rings, as shown in Fig. 
15, are fitted to the smaller engines, four and five rings 
being required to keep the piston tight in the larger 
sizes. A single ring is sometimes added, placed in 
front of -the gudgeon-pin, but its use is not recom- 
mended. The pressure on the piston, caused by the 




Fig. 14. 



explosive pressure and due to the angularity of the 
connecting-rod, should not be greater than 25 lbs. per 
square inch of rubbing surface. 

Piston Speed. — The speed of the piston for hori- 
zontal oil engines is usually allowed to be not greater 
than 600 feet per minute; for the vertical type this is 
somewhat increased. The movement of the valves, oil 
spraying and vaporizing devices, it is usually assumed, 
precludes a higher speed. The writer has, however, 
worked a 1^ B. H. P. vertical oil engine running at 



ON DESIGN INC OIL ENG] M.S. 



35 



600 revolutions per minute with satisfactory results. 
Thus, 300 movements of the valves, o : l-pump and 
sprayer were completed per minute. 

Fly-wheels on explosive engines are made much 
heavier than in steam engines of the same capacity. 




Fig. 15. 



The power is generated during only about twenty-five 
per cent, of the time of working in single-cylinder 
four-cycle explosive engines, hence the necessity of the 
very heavy fly-wheels in order to maintain a steady 
speed of the crank-shaft. The function of the fly- 



36 



OIL ENGINES. 



wheel, it may be said, is to store up the energy im- 
parted during the explosion period and pay it out again 
during the period of the three idle strokes of compres- 
sion, suction and exhaust. Two fly-wheels are gener- 
ally supplied, one placed on each side of the main 
bearings. Some of the European makers, however, 




Fig. i 6. 



are now building their larger engines provided with 
one heavy fly-w T heel only, a separate outside bearing 
being fitted in that case. 

The diameter of the fly-wheel is usually such that the 
peripheral speed is from 4000 to 5000 ft. per minute ; 
6000 ft. is considered the maximum allowable speed. 



ON designing OIL ENGINES. 



17 



The hub of the fly-wheel is sometimes split and bolted 
together. Oil-engine fly-wheels are usually made as 
shown in Fig. 1 6. The weight of the rim can be calcu- 
lated as follows : 



w = 



C X I. H. P. 

D 2 X A^ 3 ' 



where 
C 
I.H.P. 
D 

N 
w 



: constant. 

indicated horse-pow T er. 

diameter of fly-wheel in feet. 
: revolutions per minute. 

weight in lbs. of rim. 




Fig. 17. 



The constant varies according to the fluctuation in 
speed permissible; for engines required to run dy- 
namos for electric lighting purposes, C = 50,846,290,- 
000. For engines actuating general machinery C is 
considered sufficient when taken as 30,507,700,000. 

The cams are made of cast iron or steel and are 
usually designed as shown in Fig. 17. Cast iron is ad- 



38 OIL ENGINES. 

vantageously " chilled'' so as to withstand the wear of 
the rollers. The cams, it is considered, however, 
should preferably be designed of larger diameter than 
they are now made. 

The air cam is usually made about f " wide. The 
exhaust cam, which has more work to perform at the 
period of opening the valve, is made with wider sur- 
face than the air cam. 

Cylinder Lubricators. — The lubrication of the pis- 
ton in explosive engines is of great importance. On 
those engines where it is convenient to use it, a 
mechanical type of lubricator is added. This device 
consists of an oil reservoir into which a wire attached 
to a revolving spindle is periodically dipped, the wire 
being also arranged to wipe over a projection which 
conducts the oil to a receptacle placed above the reser- 
voir and connected to the top of the cylinder. The re- 
volving spindle is driven by belt from the cam-shaft. 
This lubricator is advantageous because the oil must be 
always fed to the piston while the engine is working, 
and the lubricator cannot be left unopened by the at- 
tendant, and also because all grit or dirt in the oil is 
precipitated to the bottom of the reservoir and cannot 
flow to the piston. Sight-feed lubricators are also now 
used for the lubrication of the piston, and have proved 
quite as satisfactory as the mechanical oiler. 

Valves and Valve-Boxes. — The dimensions of the 
air-inlet and exhaust valves are governed by the diam- 
eter of the cylinder and the piston speed. The style 
of the valve-box recommended is that made separate 
and bolted to the cvlinder. The valve-box can then 



ON DKSIGNING OIL ENGINES. 



39 



be entirely renewed if necessary and at small expense. 
This type of valve-box is shown at Fig. 18, both valves 
being operated from the cam-shaft. The springs neces- 
sary to close air and exhaust valves in engines over 
10 brake or actual H. P. are best placed so as not to be 
in close proximity to the heat. An arrangement of the 
closing springs of this description, with a type of 
spring having separate hooks at each end, is shown 
in Fig. 19. 

Where the air-inlet valve is made automatic, it is 




Fig. 18. 



opened by the partial vacuum in the cylinder during 
the suction period, and closed by a delicate spring, as 
shown in Fig. 20. The air and exhaust valves and 
port openings are usually made of such an area that 
the velocity of the air inlet as it enters the cylinder is 
100 feet per second — the velocity of the exhaust gases 
through the exhaust or outlet being about 80 feet per 
second, presuming the exhaust products to be expelled 
at atmospheric pressure. The air-inlet valve, if auto- 
matic, should be so arranged as to allow ingress of air 



40 



OIL ENGINES. 



without choking. In calculating the area of valve 
ports or passages, allowance must be made for valve 




Fig. 19. 

guide or other obstruction in the passages. The ve- 
locity of the air is found in the following formulae : 



V—' 



aXP 



ON DESIGNING OIL ENGINES. 4! 

V = velocity of air in ft. per second. 
P = piston speed in ft. per second. 
a = area of piston in inches. 
a 1 = area of valve opening in inches. 

The exhaust bends close to valve-box should 
when possible be of not less than 5" radius for the 




Fig. 20. 



smaller engines, which dimension should be increased 
for larger-sized engines. 

The valves are made of forged steel, either in one 
piece or with cast-iron valve and wrought-iron or steel 
stem fitted into it, and are shown in Fig. 21. Some 
manufacturers prefer the latter on account of cheap- 
ness, and also because it is claimed the cast-iron valves 
will withstand heat better than the forged valve. 



42 



OIL ENGINES. 



The crank-shaft bearing should be of such di- 
mensions as to allow a pressure of not more than 
400 lbs. per square inch on the projected area, and 
should be easily adjustable. These bearings are made 
either of brass or babbitt metal. The maximum pres- 



v CAST IRON 



WH 



Fig. 21. 

sure allowed on the piston-pin should not be more than 
1000 lbs. per square inch of projected area. 

The engine frame should be of substantial propor- 
tions and strongly ribbed to prevent vibration, or what 
is known as " panting/' at each explosion. The frame 
is shown in section in Fig. 76. 

The crank-pin appears to be made of various 



ON DESIGNING OIL ENGINES. 43 

dimensions in different types of engines; a short pin 
of large diameter is, however, recommended, the diam- 
eter being not less than 1.2 times the shaft. (See 
Table I.) The average pressure allowed is 500 lbs. 
per square inch on the projected area. 

Valve Mechanisms. — With the Beau de Rochas 
or four-cycle engine the valves are only operated dur- 
ing alternate revolutions of the crank-shaft. This 
necessitates an arrangement of some kind of two-to-one 
gear. Worm-gear, as shown in Fig. 22, is considered 




Fig. 22. 

to be well adapted for this work. The power necessary 
to operate the valves is, in this case, transmitted from 
the crank-shaft by the worm or skew gearing through 
the cam-shaft, with separate cams opening the air and 
exhaust valves by the operating levers, as shown in 
Fig. 23. Where spur-gearing (Fig. 23a) is used the 
cam-shaft is mounted in bearings parallel to the crank- 
shaft, the cams then acting on the horizontal rod 
working in compression, which opens the valves. 

Various other arrangements for reducing the motion 
are also used, the work accomplished being in each 



44 



OIL ENGINES. 



case the same as with the worm or spur gear, shaft and 
levers — namely, the opening of the valves during al- 
ternate revolutions of the crank-shaft. 



« 



; i 



CAMS 



SKEW GEARS " 

I 




fflg 



Q <i> LINE VALVE BOX 

Fig. 23. 




In the two-cycle engine this valve or valves are 
operated each revolution of the crank-shaft by eccen- 
tric or cams actuated directly from the crank-shaft. 




Fig. 23a. 

Governing Devices. — The governing devices for 
controlling the speed of oil engines are of two kinds : 
first, that designed to develop centrifugal force, which 



ON DESIGNING OIL ENGINES. 



45 



is balanced cither by suitable controlling spring or dead 
weight, as shown in Fig. 24, and, secondly, the inertia 
or pendulum type of governor, in which a weight is 




Fig. 24. 



placed on a part of the reciprocating valve motion, and 
is so arranged as to have its movement controlled by a 
spring usually having adjustable tension. (See Fig. 
26.) The governors regulate the speed of the engine 
by the following different methods : 

(a) By acting through suitable levers or other 
mechanism on the valves controlling the fuel supply 
to the cylinder, either by means of a by-pass valve 
placed in the oil-supply pipe to vaporizer, thus allowing 
part of the charge of oil to return to the tank instead 
of entering the vaporizing chamber or by regulating 
the amount of oil as well as the air supply. 

(b) Acting directly on the oil-supply pump, length- 



4 6 



OIL ENGINES. 



erring or shortening the stroke of the pump, as re- 
quired. 

(c) Where the oil vapor is arranged to be drawn 
into the cylinder with the incoming air the governor 




Fig. 25. 



acts on the exhaust-valve, holding it open during the 
suction stroke, thus preventing the inlet of vapor to 
the cylinder. 

(d) By acting on the vapor inlet-valve, allowing 
this valve to open only when an impulse to the piston is 
required. 

Engines driving dynamos for electric lighting and 
requiring very close regulation are preferably governed 
by the system of throttling or reducing the explosive 
pressures in the cylinder. Thus, when the engine ex- 
ceeds the standard speed for which the governor is set, 
only part of the vapor or oil is allowed to enter the 



ON DESIGNING OIL ENGINES. 



47 



vaporizing chamber or cylinder. The mixture of oil, 




1 



m 



Fig. 26. 



vapor and air is accordingly regulated, and the mean 
effective pressure as required is suitably reduced. 



48 



OIL ENGINES. 



The indicator diagram illustrates the variation of 
the M. E. P. in the cylinder, as shown in Fig. 25, each 
expansion line registering a different pressure. No 
explosion is in this case omitted entirely, and conse- 




Fig. 27. 



quently the running of the engine is even and regu- 
lar. 

The hit-and-miss type of governor is shown in Fig. 
26. This device is made in many different forms, the 
mode of working being similar in them all — namely, 



ON DESIGNING OIL ENGINES. 49 

the inertia of a weight controlled by the spring-. When 
the speed of the crank-shaft is increased the weight is 
moved correspondingly quicker ; its inertia is then in- 
creased, and the strength of the spring is overcome 
sufficiently to allow the engaging parts of the valve 
motion to be disengaged during one or more revolu- 
tions, and consequently where this device acts on the 
oil-pump the charge of oil is missed, and no explosion 
takes place during the following cycle of operations. 

'The oil-supply pump is placed against the oil-tank 
and base of engine or on bracket bolted to cylinder. It 
is usually made of bronze, with steel ball valves. Du- 
plicate suction and discharge valves are advantageous 
in case one valve on either side should leak. Fig. 27 
represents oil-pump as used on the Hornsby-Akroyd 
oil engine. 

The fuel oil-tank is placed in or bolted against 




Fig. 28. 

the base of the engine. It is then made of cast iron as 
part of the base of the engine ; otherwise the tank is 
made of galvanized iron and separate from the engine 



50 OIL ENGINES. 

base, so that it can be taken out when required for 
cleaning. 

A filter or strainer for cleaning the oil as it passes 
to the oil-pump is placed in the tank, arranged so as to 
be easily removed for cleaning, as shown at Fig. 28. 

Horizontal as Compared with the Vertical 
Type of Oil Engines. 

The accessibility of the piston with the horizontal 
engine is considered a great advantage. The piston 
can always be seen and can be drawn out of the cylin- 
der and cleaned and replaced with ease in this style of 
engine, whereas in a vertical engine it is necessary to 
remove the cylinder cover, and perhaps other parts, to 
gain access to the piston, and also it is necessary to 
have sufficient head room above the top of the cylinder 
for chain-block to lift the piston and connecting-rod. 
The lubrication of the piston is also considered more 
effective in the horizontal than in the vertical type of 
engine. Furthermore, the connecting-rod is more ac- 
cessible for adjustment both at the crank-pin end and 
at the piston end in the horizontal type. This difficulty, 
however, has been overcome by arranging a removable 
plug in the cylinder casing, which when taken out 
allows access for adjustment to the piston end of the 
connecting-rod. European designers seem much in 
favor of the horizontal type of engines, and although 
some leading makers build the vertical type of engines, 
yet the greater number would appear to be made of the 
horizontal type. 



ON DESIGNING OIL ENGINES. 51 

Vertical engines for situations in buildings where 
space is restricted and where sufficient head room is 
available have the great advantage of occupying less 
floor space than the horizontal type. The mechanical 
efficiency of a vertical engine is somewhat greater, 
the friction of the piston being less than in the hori- 
zontal type of engine. 

The vertical type for some special purposes can, of 
course, only be used, but for ordinary uses the horizon- 
tal type of engine at present seems to be most in favor, 
one consideration being the difficulty of suitably ar- 
ranging the vaporizing and spraying details in the 
vertical type of engine, which are usually placed 
close to the cylinder, and are, therefore, not so fully 
under the control of the attendant as in the horizontal 
type. 

Two-Cylinder Engines. — Objection is sometimes 
made against two-cylinder oil engines because 
of the increased number of working parts, which 
may possibly become deranged, and also be- 
cause of the exact adjustments which are considered 
necessary. 

The oil-supplying apparatus and all the mechan- 
ism required with a single-cylinder engine has to be 
duplicated with the two-cylinder type. In order that 
the work and w-ear on all crank-shaft and connecting- 
rod bearings may be exactly similar the same explosive 
pressures must be evolved in each cylinder. This 
necessitates close adjustment of the vapor supply. The 
governing mechanism (where one governor controls 
two different oil-supply devices) also requires fine ad- 



52 



OIL ENGINES. 



justment, and provision has to be made for adjusting 
lost motion due to wear. 




Fig. 29. 
The two-cylinder engine, however, has many ad- 



ON DESIGNING OIL ENGINES. 53 

vantages. In the first place, it receives an impulse each 
revolution of the crank-shaft, and consequently the 
energy of the fly-wheel is only required to maintain 
the normal speed of the crank-shaft during half a 
revolution, instead of the three strokes as required in 
the single-cylinder type. To obtain relatively the same 
power as with one large cylinder, the two smaller cylin- 
ders cause less vibration at the foundation. The 
efficiency, however, of the two small cylinders is re- 
duced as compared with the one large cylinder, on 
account of the increased surface of cylinder cooling 
space. 

The two-cylinder engine, as shown in Fig. 29, has 
the oil-supply pump actuated from the crank-shaft 
instead of, as is usual, from the cam-shaft, an injection 
of oil thus being given at each revolution. The oil- 
supply pipe leading to each cylinder or vaporizer is 
fitted with check-valves, which are alternately opened 
by the pressure of the pump, being otherwise held 
closed by the pressure of compression and of explosion 
alternately in each cylinder.* 



Erecting and Assembling of Oil Engines. 

The following remarks relating to the erection of oil 
engines contain a few hints on important points of 
this work, the information being intended for those 

* This method of fuel injection forms the subject-matter 
of U. S. patent 650.583, granted to the writer May 29, 1900. 



54 



OIL ENGINES. 



readers not sufficiently familiar with the assembling of 
explosive engines to be cognizant of the parts requiring 
careful handling and accurate workmanship. 

Bearings. — In scraping in the crank-shaft bearings 
of horizontal engines the shaft must bear perfectly on 
that part of the bearings as shown in Fig. 30, marked 




Fig. 30. 



A, the greater pressure being on the part of the 
bearing which is between the centre line of engine 
drawn through the cylinder and the part through 
which the vertical centre line of fly-wheel is drawn. 
A slight play of about 1-64" can be given to the crank- 
shaft sideways in the bearings in smaller-sized engines, 
and 1-32 of an inch in the larger sizes is recommended. 



ON DESIGNING OIL ENGINES. 55 

In vertical engines the bearings receive both the 
pressure of explosion and the pressure due to the 
weight of the fly-wheels in the same part, and these 
bearings require the same care at those points in the 
lower half of the bearing — namely, about 45 ° each side 
of the centre line drawn vertically through the cylinder 
and crank-shaft. The bearing surfaces of the caps and 
of that part where the pressure is not so great do not 
require such careful scraping as those parts where the 
pressure is greater. 

Piston and Piston-Rings. — The fitting of piston 
and piston-rings is very important and requires accu- 
rate workmanship. The cylinder and piston are 
machined to standard ring and gauge, one-thousandth 
per inch diameter of cylinder play being allowed. The 
metal of the piston not being of uniform thickness 
after machining may slightly lose its shape, and some- 
times requires slight hand-filing when being fitted to 
the cylinder. The piston without rings can be moved 
easily up and down inside the cylinder. If necessary 
the piston should be eased slightly by hand on the 
sides, being left a good and close fit at the top and 
bottom bearing in horizontal engines. The sides 
should not rub hard in any part. The piston, if the 
rings are in place, can be fitted to the cylinder from 
the back end of the cylinder, and can be moved around 
the front end, being inserted into cylinder as far as 
the rings. 

The distance-pieces or junk-rings should not touch 
the sides of the cylinder, the bearing of the piston be- 
ing only on the trunk of the piston itself. The front 



56 



OIL ENGINES. 



part of the piston can also be bevelled for f " in length, 
1-32" in diameter, as shown in Fig. 14. 

The piston-rings, if made as in Fig. 15, should 
have in the smaller sizes 1-32" play, in the larger sizes 
1 -16", as shown at A in Fig. 31. This space allows 
for expansion when the ring becomes heated in work- 
ing. It is advantageous to insert dowel-pins in the 
piston grooves to maintain the rings in the same posi- 
tion, so that the space in each ring is out of line with 
that in the following ring, as also shown in Fig. 31. 



\ 




Fig. 31. 



The piston is made in one piece, the rings being 
sprung on over the junk-rings. It should be remem- 
bered that with oil engines greater heat is evolved in 
the cylinder than in steam engines. Consequently the 
slightest play is allowed to the piston-rings at the sides, 
and are, therefore, not made so tight a fit as in steam- 
engine practice. 

The connecting-rod bearings at piston end are 



ON DESIGNING OIL ENGINES. S7 

scraped in the ordinary way, and should be allowed 
slight play sideways on the gudgeon-pin. In smaller- 
sized engines 1-64" can be allowed, this amount being 
slightly increased in the larger-sized engines. The 
crank-pin bearing of the connecting-rod is usually 
allowed a very slight play sidew r ays also. 

The air and exhaust valves should not be a 
very close fit in their guides. If the fit in these guides 
is made too close when the valve-box becomes heated 
the consequent expansion may cause the valve-stem to 
stick in the guides, and leakage of the valve w T ill result. 

The valve-seats are by some considered best left 
sharp, being not more than 1-32" wide before grinding. 

The water-jackets of cylinder or valve-boxes 
should be all tested by hydraulic pressure to at least 
120 lbs. pressure per square inch before the piston is 
put into the cylinder. 

The fly-wheels require careful keying onto crank- 
shaft. If the keys are not a good fit and not driven 
home tight the engine may knock when running. Two 
keys in larger-sized engines are usually supplied, one 
being a sunk key, which is fitted to keyway in recessed 
shaft as well as to the keyway cut in the fly-wheel hub, 
the second key being only recessed in the fly-wheel 
and being concave on the lower side to fit the shaft. 

Oil-supply pipes which have to withstand pres- 
sure should have the fittings " sweated" on, the unions 
being screwed into place on the brass or copper pipe 
while the solder is still in a liquid state. 

Cylinders made of two or more parts require the 
joints of internal sleeve to be made with great care. 



58 OIL ENGINES. 

Asbestos or a copper ring is used to make this joint; 
sometimes wire gauze with asbestos is used, which has 
been found to give very good results. 

[Tables giving the Calorific Values of Oils, etc., will be 
found at end of book.] 



CHAPTER III. 

TESTING ENGINES. 

The chief object in testing explosive engines at the 
factory is to ascertain that, in actual working at dif- 
ferent loads, the several adjustments are correct. In 
the steam engine a physical process is completed, re- 
quiring only the inlet, expansion, and the outlet of the 
steam to and from the cylinder, whereas in the oil 
engine a chemical process is gone through consisting 
of the introduction of the proper mixture of vaporized 
oil and air into the cylinder, the ignition of this ex- 
plosive mixture and the consequent combustion. All 
this must be accomplished before the piston receives an 
impulse. In order, therefore, that the best results 
be obtained, the different mechanisms controlling these 
processes are each set, and record of their performance 
during the test is taken with the indicator, which results 
are again verified by some form of brake attached to 
the fly-wheels or pulley of the engine, and are further 
checked in an oil engine by the record of the amount 
of oil which is consumed for the power developed. 
Where more detailed tests are required, the tempera- 
ture of the exhaust gases, the amount of air consumed 
in the cylinder, its temperature and barometrical pres- 



6o 



OIL ENGINES. 



sure, together with the amount of cooling water neces- 
sary to keep the cylinder to the required temperature, 
are each noted and recorded. When the test is made 
with a new engine, it should be first started up and run 
without anv load for a short time. The cams are set as 




Fig. 32. 



shown in diagram, Fig. 32, for engines having both air 
and exhaust valves actuated from the crank-shaft. 
The air-valve closes, as shown, just after the crank-pin 
has passed the out centre, the exhaust-valve opening at 
about 85 per cent, of the full stroke and closing just 



TESTING ENGINES. 6l 

after the air-valve has opened. Where the air-inlet 
valve is automatic the exhaust-cam only is set, as 
shown in the diagram, and the air-valve spring should 
be adjusted so that the incoming air is not choked in 
passing" the valve during the suction stroke. 

The oil-pipes leading to the vaporizer or sprayer 
should be well washed before, starting the engine, as 
with a new engine grit and filings may get into the 
pipes, and when the engine is started the oil-valves and 
valve-seats may be damaged. The oil-filter also must 
be in proper shape and clean, so that the oil can flow 
freely to the oil-pipe. 

After the vaporizer and igniter has been well 
heated a little oil should be allowed to enter the vapor- 
izer or combustion chamber; then the fly-wheels can 
be turned forward a few times, after which the engine 
should start freely. The method of starting the differ- 
ent types of engines is explained in detail in Chap- 
ter VII. An engine is sometimes found difficult to 
start the first time owing to some defect in the castings 
or workmanship, and if it fails to start, the engine 
should be examined in detail to ascertain the cause. 

First test the oil-inlet or spraying device by hand; 
then test the pressure of compression in the cylinder 
by turning the fly-wheels backward. The relief-cam 
being out of action, it should not be possible with full 
compression to turn the fly-wheel past the back centre. 
If the compression is so slight that the pressure in the 
cylinder can be overcome and the fly-wheel turned 
during the compression period by hand, then either 
the piston-rings are leaking or there is leakage past 



TESTING ENGINES. 63 

the air and exhaust valves or through some of the 
joints or gaskets. Air and exhaust valves and piston- 
rings should be examined, and any appearance of leak- 
age remedied by refitting the piston-rings, as already 
explained in Chapter II., and the valves, if necessary, 
should be reground in. New engines also fail to start 
at times by reason of the leakage of water from the 
cooling jacket into the cylinder owing to faulty gas- 
kets or flaws in the castings. This leakage of water 
may sometimes be ascertained by failure to obtain an 
explosion in the combustion chamber when all condi- 
tions in the cylinder and vaporizer are apparently in 
good order for the engine to start properly. If leakage 
of water is suspected but cannot be detected in this 
way, the water-pressure pump should be attached and 
the water-jackets tested to a pressure of 120 lbs. The 
crank-shaft and other bearings require careful oiling 
at first, and full lubrication should be given to the 
piston ; otherwise it may, perhaps, work dry and cut 
the cylinder. 

After working a few hours, the piston should be 
withdrawn and examined ; any hard places on the sides 
should be eased either by careful hand filing or other- 
wise. The junk-rings (or distance-pieces between the 
rings ) should be eased if necessary, so that they do not 
work hard on the cylinder. The full bearing of the 
piston should be from about \" from rings forward to 
within \" of the front end, as already explained in 
Chapter II. 

The terms " brake," or " developed," or " actual" 
or " effective" H. P., are synonymous, and are used 



64 OIL ENGINES. 

to signify the power which an engine is capable of 
delivering at the fly-wheel or belt-pulley. This power 
is variously designated, and here we shall use the ab- 
breviation B. H. P. to express it. The indicated H. P. 
represents the whole power developed by combustion 
in the cylinder, but it is not considered such a reliable 
method of measuring the power of explosive engines 
as that of the dynamometer or brake, because the in- 
dicator-card only gives the power developed by one or 
more explosions, whereas the brake can be applied for 
any length of time and shows the average performance 
of the engine for a longer period of time. 

Fig. 33 illustrates the engine as arranged for testing 
in the factory. The fuel tank shown at the left hand is 
placed there for the purpose of running the oil-con- 
sumption test. The fuel pump is connected tempo- 
rarily to this tank instead of taking its supply of oil 
from the tank in the base of the engine. The indicator 
is also shown in place on the top of the cylinder. The 
device for reducing the stroke of the crank to suitable 
dimensions for the indicator is also shown in place 
bolted to the bed-plate of the engine. The brake con- 
sists of rope \" thick, with wooden guides with bal- 
ances at each extremity. The upper balance is sus- 
pended by adjustable hook suitably arranged for alter- 
ing the load on the brake. 

Various kinds of dynamometer brakes are 'used for 
testing; that shown in Fig. 33 is considered by the 
writer as being satisfactory. The brake should be 
attached as shown in the illustration, the load being 
taken as the number of pounds shown on the upper 



TESTING ENGINES. 



65 



scale less those shown on the lower scale. Brake or 
actual II. P. is calculated thus: 



B. II. F. = 



W XCXN 



33,000 

W = net load in pounds. 

C = circumference of wheel. 

N = number of revolutions per minute. 




Fig. 34- 



The circumference of the wheel should be measured 
at the centre of the rope, thus allowing for half the 
rope thickness. 

Indicators. — Fig. 34 shows the American Thomp- 
son Improved Indicator with J" area piston. 



66 



OIL ENGINES. 



The indicator is attached to the cylinder by first 
screwing into the cylinder the indicator cock, as shown 
at Fig. 34a, to which the indicator is applied in the 
ordinary way. 

The length of the stroke of the engine must be re- 
duced to suit the dimensions of the diagram, which is 




Fig. 34a. 

usually about 3" long. This is accomplished by the 
use of a device, as shown in Fig. 35. 
Indicated H. P. is calculated thus : 



I. H.P. =- 



PLAE 
33,000 " 



P = mean effective pressure in lbs. 

L = length of stroke in feet. 

A = area in inches of piston. 

E = number of explosions per minute. 



TEST] \'<: ENG1 NES. 



67 



The M. E. P. of indicator-card is obtained by the 
use of the planimeter, as shown in Fig. 37, or by meas- 
uring the card by scale and taking the average pres- 
sure. 

The illustration (Fig. 36) shows the design and 




Fig. 35- 



arrangement of the parts of the Crosby gas-engine in- 
dicator. The cylinder proper is that in which the 
movement of the piston takes place. The piston is 
formed from a solid piece of tool steel, and is hardened 
to prevent any reduction of its area by wearing. Shal- 



68 



OIL ENGINES. 



low channels in its outer surface provide an air pack- 
ing, and the moisture and oil which they retain act as 
lubricants, and prevent undue leakage by the piston. 




The piston is threaded inside to receive the lower 
end of the piston-rod and has a longitudinal slot 
which permits the bottom part of the spring with 



TESTING ENGINES. 69 

its bead to drop on to a concave bearing in the upper 
end of the piston-screw, which is closely threaded 
into the lower part of the socket; the head of this 
screw is hexagonal, and may be turned with a hollow 
wrench. 

The swivel-head is threaded on its lower half to 
screw into the piston-rod more or less according to the 
required height of the atmospheric line on the diagram. 
Its head is pivoted to the piston-rod link of the pencil 
mechanism. The pencil mechanism is designed to 
eliminate as far as possible the effect of momentum, 
which is especially troublesome in high-speed work. 
The movement of the spring throughout its range bears 
a constant ratio to the force applied, and the amount of 
this movement is multiplied six times at the pencil 
point. 

Springs. — In order to obtain a correct diagram, the 
height of the pencil of the indicator must exactly 
represent in pounds per square inch the pressure on 
the piston of the oil engine at every point of the stroke ; 
and the velocity of the surface of the drum must bear 
at every instant a constant ratio to the velocity of the 
engine piston. 

The piston spring is made of a single piece of 
spring steel wire, wound from the middle into a double 
coil, the spiral ends of which are screwed into a brass 
head having four radial wings to hold them securely 
in place ; 80 to 200 lb. spring is a suitable pressure 
for this work. 

This type of indicator is ordinarily made with a 
drum one and one half inches in diameter, this being 



yo OIL ENGINES. 

the correct size for high-speed work, and answering 
equally well for low speeds. 

To remove the piston and spring, unscrew the cap; 
then take hold of the sleeve and lift all the connected 
parts free from the cylinder. This gives access to all 
the parts to clean and oil them. 

To change the location of the atmospheric line of 
the diagram. — First, unscrew the cap and lift the 
sleeve, with its connections, from the cylinder; then 
turn the piston and connected parts toward the left, 
and the pencil point will be raised, or to the right and 
it will be lowered. One complete revolution of the 
piston will raise or lower the pencil point \" ', and this 
should be the guide for whatever amount of elevation 
or depression of the atmospheric line is needed. 

To change to a left-hand instrument. — -If it is desired 
to make this change : First, remove the drum, and then 
with the hollow wrench remove the hexagonal stop 
screw in the drum base, and screw it into the vacant 
hole marked L ; next, reverse the position of the adjust- 
ing handle in the arm ; also, the position of the metallic 
point in the pencil lever ; then replace the drum, and 
the change from right to left will be completed. 

The tension on the drum spring may be increased or 
diminished according to the speed of the engine on 
which the instrument is to be used, as follows : Re- 
move the drum by a straight upward pull ; then raise 
the head of the spring above the square part of the 
spindle, and turn it to the right for more or to the left 
for less tension, as required; then replace the head on 
the spindle. 



TESTING ENGINES. 7 1 

Before attaching the indicator to an engine, allow air 
to blow freely through pipes and cock to remove any 
particles of dust or grit that may have lodged in them. 

The indicator should be attached close to the cylin- 
der whenever practicable, especially on high-speed en- 
gines. If pipes must be used they should not be smaller 
than half an inch in diameter, and as short and direct 
as possible. 

The indicator can be used in a horizontal position, 
but it is more convenient to take diagrams when it is 
in a vertical position, and this can generally be ob- 
tained, when attaching to a vertical engine, by using a 
short pipe with a quarter upward bend. 

The motion of the paper drum may be derived from 
any part of the engine, which has a movement coinci- 
dent with that of the piston. In general practice and 
in a large majority of cases the piston itself is chosen 
as being the most reliable and convenient. 

When the indicator is in position and the cord-drum 
or other reducing motion is correctly placed, it is next 
necessary to adjust the length of the cord, so that the 
drum will clear the stops at each extreme of its rota- 
tion. The engine should be allowed to run for a few 
minutes to heat up before taking a diagram. The at- 
mospheric line should be drawn by hand, preferably 
after the diagram has been taken and when the instru- 
ment is heated up ; the card is then taken with full- 
rated load on the brake. It is well to allow the pencil 
to go several times over the paper so as to procure 
a card showing several explosions, and thus the aver- 
age pressure can be taken. 



72 



OIL ENGINES. 



The pressure of the pencil on the paper can be ad- 
justed by screwing the handle in or out, so that when it 
strikes the stop there will be just enough pressure on 
the pencil to give a distinct fine line. The line should 




Fig. 37. 



not be heavy, as the friction necessary to draw such a 
line is sufficient to cause errors in the diagram. 

The planimeter or averaging instrument is shown 
at Fig. 37. No. 1 planimeter is the simplest form of the 
instrument, having but one wheel, and is designed to 
measure areas in square inches and decimals of a 



TESTING ENGINES. 73 

square inch. The figures on the roller wheei D repre- 
sent units, the graduations tenths, and the vernier E 
gives the hundredths. P is the tracer and P is the 
pivot. 

Fig. 37 represents the No. 2 planimeter, which is 
the same as the No. 1, with the addition of a counting 
disc G, the figures on which represent tens and mark 
complete revolutions of the roller-wheel. By this 
means areas greater than ten square inches can be 
measured with facility. The result is given in square 
inches and decimals, and the reading from the roller 
wheel and vernier is the same as with No. 1. 

Fig. 37 represents the No. 3 planimeter, which dif- 
fers somewhat in design from the two previously de- 
scribed. It is capable of measuring larger areas, and 
by means of the adjustable arm A giving the results in 
various denominations of value, such as square deci- 
meters, square feet and square inches ; also of giving 
the average height of an indicator diagram in fortieths 
of an inch, which makes it a very useful instrument in 
o mnection with indicator work. 



Directions for Measuring an Indicator Diagram 
with a No. 1 or No. 2 Planimeter. 

Care should be taken to have a flat, even, unglazed 
surface for the roller wheel to travel upon. A sheet of 
dull-finished cardboard serves the purpose very well. 
Set the weight in position on the pivot end of the bar 
P, and after placing the instrument and the diagram 



74 



OIL ENGINES. 



in about the position shown in Fig. 37a, press down the 
needle point so that it will hold its place, set the tracer ; 
then at any given point in the outline of the diagram, 
as at F, adjust the roller wheel to zero. Now fol- 
low the outline of the diagram carefully with the tracer 




Fig. 37a. 



point, moving it in the direction indicated by the arrow, 
or that of the hands of a watch, until it returns to the 
point of beginning. The result may then be read as 
follows : Suppose we find that the largest figure on 
the roller wheel D that has passed by zero on the ver- 
nier £ to be 2 (units) and the number of graduations 
that have also passed zero on the vernier to be 4 



TESTING ENGINES. 75 

(tenths), and the number of graduation on the vernier 
which exactly coincides with the graduation on the 
wheel to be 8 (hundredths), then we have 2.48 square 
inches as the area of the diagram. Divide this by the 
length of the diagram, which we will call 3 inches, and 
we have .8266 inch as the average height of the dia- 
gram. Multiply this by the scale of the spring used in 
taking the diagram, which in this case is 40, and we 
have 33.06 pounds as the mean effective pressure per 
square inch on the piston of the engine. 

Directions for Using the No. 3 Planimeter. 

No. 3 planimeter is somewhat differently manipu- 
lated, although the same general principle obtains. 
The figures on the wheels may represent different 
quantities and values, according to the particular ad- 
justment of the sliding arm A. If.it is desired merely 
to find the area in square inches of an indicator dia- 
gram, set the sliding arm so that the 10-square-inch 
mark will exactly coincide with the vertical mark on 
the inner end of the sleeve H at K. The sliding arm is 
released or made fast by means of the set-screw vS\ 

With the wheels at zero and the planimeter and dia- 
gram in the proper position, trace the outline carefully 
and read the result from the roller wheel and vernier, 
the same as directed for the No. 1 and No. 2 instru- 
ments. 

The indicator-card shows what is occurring inside 
the cylinder and combustion chamber during the differ- 
ent periods of the revolution. It gives a record of the 



7 6 



OIL ENGINES. 



variations in pressure, and also the exact points of the 
opening and closing of the valves. With the Otto or 
Beau de Rochas cycle the four strokes are as follows : 
Suction (A), compression (B), expansion (C), ex- 
haust (D). The lines in the diagram are correspond- 
ingly lettered (see Fig. 38), and they represent each of 
these processes. 




SUCTION A. 

Fig. 38. 

Fig. 39 shows a good working diagram, in which 
the mixture of air and hydrocarbon gas is correct and 
where combustion is practically complete. The igni- 
tion line in this diagram is nearly perpendicular to the 
atmospheric line, but 'inclines slightly toward the 
right hand at top. The diagram also shows the open- 
ing of the exhaust-valve at the proper time — namely, 
at 85 per cent, of the stroke. The compression line 
represents the proper pressure, and the air-inlet and 
exhaust lines indicate correct proportioned valves and 
inlet and outlet passages. 



TESTING ENGINES. 



77 



In considering and analyzing diagrams the follow- 
ing hints will perhaps be of service. If the suction 
line of the diagram is shown below the atmospheric 




Fig. 39. 




Fig. 40. 



line, as in Fig. 40, then the air-inlet to the cylinder is 
known to be in some way choked. Where the air-valve 
is automatic this defect may be caused by the valve- 



y8 OIL ENGINES. 

spring being too strong and it accordingly requires 
weakening ; or the area of the air suction-pipe, if this is 
used, may be too small or this connection may have too 
many elbows or bends in it, and should be either of in- 
creased diameter or the bends should be eliminated. 
Again, the valve itself may have too small an area, or 
if actuated have insufficient lift (the proper lift of a 
valve is | of its diameter), or the period of opening 
of the valve may not be correct, and the setting of the 
cams should be carefully examined, and, if necessary, 
altered in accordance with the diagram of valve open- 
ing, as shown at Fig. 32. 

If the compression line B shows insufficient pres- 
sure of compression, this indicates leakage, which is 
probably due either to leaky piston or valves. If this 
leakage is past the piston-rings, the escaping air may 
be heard and the lubricating oil will be seen at each ex- 
plosion period to be splashing and blown past the rings 
of the piston. If no signs of piston leakage are noticed, 
then examine oil-inlet air and exhaust valves and valve- 
seats very carefully ; also note the various joints in the 
valve-box and otherwise where leakage might possibly 
occur. In engines without water-jackets around the 
valve-box the heat of the exhaust gases continually 
passing through the valve-chamber may sometimes 
cause the valve-seats to expand unequally when heated, 
and consequent leakage will occur when working. 

If leakage is detected at the valves they must be re- 
ground, and also any hard places on the valve-stems 
or guides where they become heated should be eased so 
that the valves will work easily and efficiently when the 



TESTINC ENGINES. 79 

scats and guides arc expanded, and, perhaps, slightly 
distorted, by the heat of working. (It is understood 
that these remarks refer to new engines solely.) With 
some engines means of increasing the compression by 
movable plates on the connecting-rod crank-pin end 
or other somewhat similar means are provided which 
can be changed, if necessary, thus decreasing the 




Fig. 41. 

amount of clearance in. the cylinder. If the piston- 
rings are without leakage and they have worked into 
their proper bearings in the cylinder, and if all the 
valves are in perfect order and without leakage, and 
still the compression pressure, as shown on the diagram 
and as already explained, requires increasing, then the 
clearance in the cylinder can be slightly decreased 
where it is possible to do so. The vertical ignition line 
shows the timing of the ignition, and also the initial 
pressure of explosion. If this line is as represented in 
Fig. 41 the ignition is known to be too early, and 
should be arranged to occur somewhat later. The 



8o 



OIL ENGINES. 



diagrams as shown in Fig. 42 has the ignition line too 

late. 

The timing of the ignition is regulated as foltows : 
With electric ignition by altering the period of 




Fig. 42. 



sparking. Thus, if later ignition is required the ignit- 
ing device must not be allowed to spark till the crank- 
pin has travelled nearer to the dead centre. With the 
hot-tube ignition and no timing valve, the length of the 



TESTING ENGINES. 8l 

tube can be changed. For example, to retard the 
ignition the tube should be lengthened slightly and its 
temperature somewhat decreased. In engines where 
neither of these means of ignition is used, but where 
the ignition is caused by the heat of the vaporizer- 
chamber or somewhat similar device, the timing of the 
ignition is controlled by the heat of the vaporizer- 
chamber and also by the heat generated by the process 
of compression. Where the ignition in this case is to 
be retarded, the compression should be reduced slightly 
and the vaporizer or other igniting device maintained 
at a less heat. The ignition, however actually caused, 
is always influenced by the heat of the cylinder walls 
and the temperature of the incoming air, which corre- 
spondingly increases or decreases the heat caused by 
the compression before explosion takes place. The 
ignition is usually adjusted when testing engines with 
the cooling water issuing from the cylinder water- 
jackets at a temperature of no° to 130 Fahr. 

The expansion line is marked C, as shown in Fig. 38. 
This line indicates the initial pressure of combustion, 
and it also shows the developed pressure decreasing as 
the volume of the cylinder becomes greater with the 
piston moving forward. The effective pressure devel- 
oped is measured from this line to the compression 
line, and varies according to the richness of the ex- 
plosive mixture. When the engine is in actual use 
the governor controls this pressure automatically. 

The mean effective pressure is greater in some types 
of engines than it is in others, and varies, as stated in 
Chapter II., from 40 to 75 lbs. The amount of the 



82 



OIL ENGINES. 



pressure in the cylinder is dependent upon the method 
of vaporization, upon the proper mixture of the gas 




Fig. 43- 

and air before explosion, and also upon the pressure 
of the compression. As in gas engines, the tendency in 
oil-engine practice is toward higher compression to 



TESTING ENGINES. 83 

increase their efficiency. Where the mean effective 
pressure is low the relative power of the engine will, 

of course, also be reduced. The greatest mean effective 
pressure should be attained when the oil is thoroughly 
\;aporized, is properly mixed with the air and when 
the compression is as high as practicable without pre- 
ignition taking place. 

Should the exhaust lines D appear as in Fig. 43, then 
it is understood that the discharge of the exhaust gases 
is in some way choked ; this may be caused by the ex- 
haust-valve itselt being too small, or to the periods of 
the opening of the valve being incorrect. (See dia- 
gram, Fig. 32.) Again, this defect may be caused by 
too many sharp bends, too small diameter exhaust- 
pipe, or possibly too long an exhaust-pipe. Theoreti- 
cally no back pressure should be allowed during the 
exhaust period, but usually in practice a slight pres- 
sure of about one pound is recorded. 

Each pound per square inch of back pressure shown 
by the exhaust line shows a back pressure in the cylin- 
der, which is negative work to be overcome by the 
piston, and represents a slight loss of power by the 
engine. 

Care must be taken that the indicator is in proper 
condition, without any play in the pencil arm, and that 
the piston is free and well lubricated. Lost motion in 
the indicator may show peculiarities in the diagram 
which to an inexperienced manipulator may be the 
cause of trouble. 

Tachometers (Fig. 44). — These instruments have 
been designed for the purpose of ascertaining at a 



8 4 



OIL ENGINES. 



dance the number of revolutions made in a given time 
by rotating shafts. Their construction is based on 
centrifugal power, and they consist of a case inside of 
which are mounted a pendulum ring, in connection 
with a fixed shaft, a sliding rod and an indicating 




Fig. 44. 



movement. The apparatus is very sensitive, ?.nd will 
indicate the slightest deviation in speed. 

Portable Tachometer (Fig. 44a). — This instru- 
ment is similar in construction to the tachometer for 
permanent attachment. By applying it by hand to the 
centre of rotating shafts, it will instantly and correctly 
indicate the number of revolutions of the shaft per 
minute. 

Fig. 44b illustrates a new form of speed counter, the 



TESTING ENGINES. 



85 



invention of Mr. A. J. Hill, of Detroit, Mich., which, 
besides counting, also registers the number of revolu- 




Fig. 44a. 



tions of the shaft. This is accomplished by simply 
punching a continuous slip of paper, as shown in 




44&- 

Fig. 44c The watch mechanism in the device also 
periodically records a detent in the paper slip, thus 



E 



IB 



44C 



marking the periods of time while the shaft actuates 
the mechanism of the device, causing a detent for each 



86 OIL ENGINES. 

revolution. The writer has not yet had an opportunity 
of testing this interesting and useful invention. 

When the full brake H. P. is obtained, which should 
be developed for at least a period of one hour con- 
tinuously, the consumption fuel test is made. 

The mechanical efficiency of oil engines, as 

shown by records of various tests, should be from 80 

per cent, to 88 per cent., although the efficiency is , 

much less than this when the engine has been working 

only a short time and before the crank-shaft and other 

bearings and piston are worn in. To ascertain the 

mechanical efficiency of an engine, first calculate the 

I. H. P v as already described ; then figure the B. H. P., 

as already shown. Then : 

B. H. P. 

Mechanical efficiency =- 

I. H. P. 

For instance : If the B. H. P. of an engine = 10 and 

the I. H. P. = 12.5, 

10 

Mechanical efficiency = 

12.5 

= 80 per cent. 

Thermal Efficiency. — The ratio of the heat util- 
ized by the engine, as shown by the power (B. H. P.) 
developed, as compared with the total heat contained 
in the fuel absorbed by the engine, is known as the 
thermal efficiency. This can be obtained by the follow- 
ing formula : 

42.63 X 60 

cxx 



TESTING ENGINES. 87 

C = consumption of fuel in pounds per B. II. F. per 

hour. 
X = calorific value of the fuel per pound in heat 
units. 

The thermal efficiency of the oil engine is low as 
compared with the gas engine. The best gas-engine 
makers now claim a thermal efficiency for their engines 
of 27 per cent., whereas it is believed the maximum 
thermal efficiency recorded by any oil engine now in 
regular use is 18 per cent. 

The following heat table shows the disposition of 
heat in oil engines as given by Dugeld Clerk : 

Heat shown on diagrams per I. H. P.. . 15.3 per cent. 

Heat rejected in water-jackets 26.8 per cent. 

Heat rejected in exhaust and other 

losses 57.9 per cent. 



100 per cent. 

It may be remarked, however, that this efficiency, 
though seemingly low, compares well with that of the 
steam engine, of which the average recorded results 
show about 11 per cent, thermal efficiency. 

Fuel Consumption Test. — This is generally made 
with all new engines before they leave the factory, and 
is advantageous as a check of the efficiency of the 
engine as shown by the indicator and the brake tests, 
and this test is also useful to ascertain the exact con- 
sumption of fuel by the engine in actual operation. 



88 OIL ENGINES. 

The oil is weighed, the amount being gauged by 
weight of fuel rather than by measuring the oil. The 
tank or other receptacle from which the fuel is drawn 
is first filled with kerosene. The tank is then placed 
on platform scales, and the weight is carefully taken 
and time noted when the engine is ready to begin this 
test. The full load required is then adjusted on the 
brake while the engine is running at its normal speed. 

The oil can also be measured by means of a pointer 
placed in the tank, the tank being filled until the pointer 
is just visible before the engine is ready for the test 
to commence. The oil is then weighed in a separate 
vessel, and a quantity of the fuel is poured into the test 
tank. * When the test is completed, the oil is taken out 
of the tank until the pointer shows again just as it did 
at the commencement of the test. The weight of the 
kerosene remaining in the vessel is deducted from the 
whole weight as at first recorded, and the difference is 
the amount consumed by the engine. It is usual to 
continue this test for at least one hour's duration. Dur- 
ing the consumption test, the load on the brake and the 
number of revolutions per minute are recorded and the 
average brake horse-power developed is taken. The 
exact amount of oil consumed per hour being also 
known, the'consumption of oil per H. P. hour is simply 
ascertained. 

Light spring indicator diagrams are taken to ascer- 
tain the efficiency of the air and exhaust valves, ports 
and passages. That shown at Fig. 45 is taken with 
2^0 spring. The indicator must be fitted with special 
stop arrangement to prevent the pencil going above . 



TESTING ENGINES. 



89 



the drum of the indicator when taking light spring 
cards. 

It is advantageous to have some method of limiting 
the supply of oil to the vaporizer arranged so as to pre- 
vent the engine from consuming an excess of oil at any 
time. This gauge should be made immediately after 
the consumption test has been proved as satisfactory, 
and to avoid possible mistake by alteration of the oil 
supply. As already described, if too much oil enters 




the vaporizer, bad combustion will follow and carboni- 
zation will, perhaps, result, thus rendering the piston 
sticky and gummy, and materially reducing the effi- 
ciency of the engine. 

The exact periods for the movements of the valve 
and cams should also be clearly marked on the gearing 
or elsewhere, so that if at any future time the crank- 
shaft is taken out or the gearing (or other mechanism) 
between the crank-shaft and the cam-shaft removed, 



90 OIL ENGINES. 

the relative position of the crank-shaft with the valve 
mechanism can be readily ascertained and the exact 
position of the cams again found without difficulty. 

Exhaust Gases. — With an oil engine it is impor- 
tant to note the color of the exhaust gases, which may 
vary a little according to the weather. Where com- 
plete combustion is taking place, the exhaust gases are 
almost, if not entirely, invisible. When the engine is 
first started, these gases will, perhaps, be white, grad- 
ually getting bluer. 

If an oil engine is working well and if the combus- 
tion is complete, the exhaust gases will not be seen but 
only heard, and the piston will also remain clean in 
working. 

Testing the Flash Point of Kerosene. — Fig. 46a 
shows apparatus for ascertaining the " open fire" test 
or the temperature at- which kerosene will flash or ex- 
plode. This device consists of a small copper vessel in 
which the kerosene is placed. This vessel is immersed 
in a larger vessel containing water, which forms part 
of the upper part of the apparatus. 

A thermometer is suspended with its lower part in 
the oil. A heating lamp placed under the receptacle 
containing the water raises the temperature of both 
water and oil as required. A lighted taper is passed to 
and fro over the top of the oil as it becomes heated. 
When the vapor given off by the oil flashes the tem- 
perature is noted, and that is termed the " flashing 
point" of the oil thus tested. 

The " Abel" oil-tester is shown at Fig. 4.6b. This 



TESTING ENGINES. 



91 



was originated by Sir Frederick Abel, and hence its 
name. The tests made with this apparatus are those 
known as the " Abel closed" test. Such tests are recog- 
nized by the law (at the present time) of Great Britain. 





Fig. 46. 



The device consists of a copper vessel containing water 
in which is an air-chamber. In the air-chamber is 
placed an oil-cup made of gun-metal. This oil-cup is 
supplied with tight-fitting lid, and is provided with gas 



92 OIL ENGINES. 

or oil lamp suitably arranged to ignite the oil vapor 
when required. 

Two thermometers are required, one immersed in 
the oil and the other in the water, each having a tight 
joint around it. 

The following are the instructions for performing 
this test : The heating vessel or water-bath is filled 
until the water flows out at the spout of the vessel. 
The temperature of the water at the commencement of 
the test is 130 Fahrenheit. The water having been 
raised to the proper temperature, the oil to be tested is 
poured into the petroleum cup, until the level of the 
liquid just reaches the point of the gauge which is fixed 
in the cup. If necessary, the samples to be tested should 
be cooled dow T n to about 6o°. The lid of the cup with 
the slide closed is then put on, and the oil-cup is placed 
in the water-bath or heating vessel, the thermometer in 
the lid of the cup being adjusted so as to have its bulb 
immersed in the liquid. The test-lamp is then placed 
in position upon the lid of the cup, the lead line, or 
pendulum, which has been fixed in a convenient posi- 
tion in front of the operator, is set in motion, and the 
rise of the thermometer in the petroleum cup is 
watched. When the temperature has reached about 
66° the operation of testing is to be commenced, the 
test flame being applied at once for every rise of i° in 
the following manner : 

The slide is slowly drawn open while the pendulum 
performs three oscillations, and is closed during the 
fourth oscillation. Thus a flame is made to come in 
contact with the vapor above the oil. The temperature 



TESTING ENGINES. 93 

at which the vapor Hashes is noted, and is called the 
Hashing point of the oil. If it is desired to employ the 
test apparatus to determine the flashing points of oils 
of very low volatility, the mode of proceeding is modi- 
fied as follows : 

The air-chamber which surrounds the cup is filled 
with cold water, to a depth of i^ inches, and the heat- 
ing vessel or water-bath is filled with cold water. The 
lamp is then placed under the apparatus and kept there 
during the entire operation. If a very heavy oil is be- 
ing dealt with, the operation commences w r ith water 
previously heated to 120 instead of with cold water. 

Viscosity of Oil. — It is frequently advantageous to 
ascertain the viscosity of different oils. The device 
shown at Fig. 46c is manufactured by C. I. Tagliabue 
especially for this purpose. The viscosity of an oil 
with this apparatus is found by noticing the number of 
seconds required for fifty cubic centimetres of oil to 
pass the open faucet or valve. 

To test the viscosity of oil at 212 Fahr. with this 
apparatus, first pour water into the boiler through 
opening A, unscrew safety-valve until water-gauge 
shows that the boiler is full, open stop-cock B, making 
a direct connection between the boiler and upper vessel 
which surrounds the receptacle in which the oil to be 
tested is placed. Suspend a thermometer so that its bulb 
will be about \ inch from the bottom of the oil-bath. 
After carefully straining 70 cubic centimetres of the oil 
to be tested, which must be warmed in the case of very 
heavy oils, pour same into the oil-bath. Close 



94 



OIL ENGINES. 



stop-cocks D and E. Screw the extension F with 
rubber hose attached into the coupling G, and let the 
open^end of the hose be immersed in a vessel of water, 




Fig. 46c. 



which will prevent too large a loss of steam. Place 
lamp or Bunsen burner under boiler ; screw steel nipple 
marked 212 on to stop-cock H ; the apparatus is then 
ready to use. After steam is generated, wait until the 



TESTING ENGINES. 95 

thermometer in oil-bath shows a temperature of from 
209 ° to 21 i° ; then plaee the 50 cubic centimetre glass 

under stop-cock H , so that the stream of oil strikes the 
side of test-glass, thereby preventing the forming of 
air-bubbles ; and when the thermometer indicates its 
highest point open the faucet H simultaneously with 
the starting of the timing watch. When the running 
oil reaches the 50 cubic centimetre mark in the neck of 
the test-glass the watch is instantly stopped and the 
number of seconds noted. 

To ascertain the viscosity, multiply the number of 
seconds by two, and the result will be the viscosity of 
the oil. For example : If 50 cubic centimetres of oil 
runs through in 10.1J seconds, the viscosity will then 
be 203. 

To test the viscosity of oils at 70 ° Fahr. screw the 
steel nipple marked 70 on to faucet H; close stop- 
cock B , closing communication between boiler and 
upper vessel ; also close stop-cock E. Fill upper vessel 
through opening G with water at a temperature as near 
70 ° as possible, also having the oil to be tested at the 
same temperature ; hang the thermometer in position, 
and after stirring the oil thoroughly, blow through rub- 
ber tube at D to thoroughly mix the water ; should the 
thermometer show higher or lower than 70 add cold 
or warm water until the desired temperature is at- 
tained. Then proceed as before stated. 

[For tables of tests of various oil engines made at Edin- 
burgh, see end of book.] 



CHAPTER IV. 

COOLING WATER-TANKS, AND OTHER 
DETAILS. 

Water is always required to keep the cylinders of 
explosive engines cool, and is necessitated by the great 
heat evolved in such engines, which heat would, if it 
were not carried away, prevent the proper working 
of an engine by too great expansion of the piston and 
by burning the lubricating oil. Where running water 
from city main is not available, water-tanks are used. 
The engine water-jackets are connected to the tanks 
as shown in Fig. 47. It is important that the water 
piping rises all the way from the engine to the tanks. 
The water, when tanks are used, circulates by gravi- 
tation — that is, the cold water being slightly heavier 
than the hot sinks to the bottom of the tank, passes 
from the tank to the water-jacket, and returns as warm 
water to the top of the tank to be cooled off and again 
sink to the bottom of the tank. 

The cooling water-tanks must be of not less capac- 
ity than 70 gallons of water per brake H. P. of engine. 
The tanks when installed should preferably be placed 
in the best location for cold air to circulate around 



COOLING WATER-TANKS AND OTHER DETAILS. 97 



theifa, so that the water in the tanks may cool off as 
quickly as possible. 

Where an engine is required to work for more than 
ten hours per day, the tanks should be of larger capac- 
ity than that above stated, or provision should be made 

I 




, . .. =- 



DRAIN COCK 



Fig. 47. 

to add cold water to the tanks when the water becomes 
heated above 120 Fahrenheit. 

The waste-water drain-pipe from the tanks should 
be arranged to allow the hot water to run off from the 
top of the tanks and the cold-water inlet-pipe arranged 
to enter near the bottom. The circulating-water pipes 
connecting the tanks to engine water-jacket should be 
large enough to allow the water to circulate freelv. 
A pipe having \\" inside diameter is considered suit- 




Fig. 48. 



COOLING WATER-TANKS AND OTHER DETAILS. <J<J 

able for the smaller size of engines and 3" diameter 
pipe is sufficient for engines of 25 B. H. P. and over. 

In some installations cooling water is available, but 
may require pumping to the engine. In such cases a 
pump capable of delivering more than ten gallons per 
brake 11. P. of engine should be used. This pump can 
be actuated from the cam-shaft of engine as shown in 
Fig. 48, or from the crank-shaft by eccentric in the 
usual way. A rotary pump is sometimes used to ac- 
celerate the circulation of water in hot climates with 
the tank system of cooling water, and can be driven by 
belting from the crank-shaft of the engine. A by-pass 
in the water-pipes between the suction-pipe and the 
discharge-pipe of the water-circulating pump is advan- 
tageous, having a regulating valve in the by-pass. If 
this by-pass is not made, other means should be ar- 
ranged, so that the supply of cooling water can be regu- 
lated to maintain the proper temperature of the cylin- 
der of the engine — namely, no° to 130 Fahrenheit. 
This temperature is recommended by the makers of 
several oil engines. 

Where neither pump to lift and circulate cooling 
water nor water-tanks are necessary and where water 
is used from the city water-mains, §" inside diameter 
pipe is sufficient for small and moderate-sized engines. 
The larger size may have 1" diameter pipe connections 
to cylinder. 

In all cases, either with tanks, water-pumps, or 
where the water is connected direct from the city 
water-main, provision must be made for emptying the 
cylinder water-jacket and all the water-pipes in time of 

LofC. 



IOO OIL ENGINES. 

frost. If the water in the water-jacket of the cylinder 
should be allowed to freeze, the cylinder casting may 
be cracked, and this may necessitate very expensive re- 
pairs. 

Salt water can be used for cooling the cylinder. It 
should, however, be pumped through rapidly, so as 
not to allow the formation of any deposit inside water- 
jackets. In southern climates or where the tempera- 
ture of the water is above 70 ° Fahrenheit, more water 
is required than above stated to keep the cylinder (when 
working at full load) below 130 . 

The writer has tested such installations requiring 30 
gallons per B. H. P. per hour, the normal temperature 
of the inlet cooling water in this case being 85 ° to 90 
Fahrenheit. 

Exhaust Silencers. — The noise from the exhaust 
gases is sometimes considered to be a great objection 
to the use of explosive engines, but this is chiefly due 
to the fact that the ordinary cast-iron exhaust silenc- 
ing chamber supplied with engine is not designed to 
entirely silence the exhaust, but is only regarded as 
sufficient to partly reduce this noise. 

Where it is essential that the exhaust be entirely 
silenced, this can be easily accomplished in the follow- 
ing way : A brick pit should be built as shown in 
Fig. 49. The exhaust-pipe from the engine is then 
connected to the bottom of this pit. The outlet-pipe 
to the atmosphere is connected to the top of the pit. 
The space inside the pit should be filled with large 
stones, as shown in illustration. These stones should 
be about six inches in size, so that crevices are left 



COOLING WATER-TANKS AND OTHER DETAILS. K)l 

between them through which the gases can penetrate. 
A drain-pipe should he arranged to allow the water 
to flow out of the pit. The stone or cast-iron plate 
covering the pit is securely fastened down to the 
masonry. 

With oil-engine exhaust gases there may be some 




Fig. 49. 



odor. When it is necessary that both the noise and the 
odor should be done away with, an exhaust washer 
should be installed instead of the silencing pit, as al- 
ready described. This apparatus consists of a tank, to 
which the water is connected as it issues from the 
water- jacket of the engine-cylinder, or where cooling 



102 



OIL ENGINES. 



i-k 



el k 




FROM ENGINE 



WATER OUTLET 



Fig. 50. 



COOLING WATER-TANKS AND OTHER DETAILS. IO3 

tanks arc used the water should be taken from the 
main. About 100 gallons of water are required per 
hour. The exhaust-pipe from the engine valve-box is 
also connected directly to this tank. The outlet of the 
water is connected from the tank to sewer and the out- 
let exhaust-pipe is also connected in the usual way to 
the top of the building. 

The exhaust gases by this arrangement come in 
contact with the water and are partly condensed and 
quite purified. The pressure and noise are eliminated 
entirely, any deposit of carbon left in the gases after 
combustion is carried off by the w T ater to the sewer, 
and there is practically no odor when the gases escape 
from the exhaust-pipe to the atmosphere at the roof. 
This device is shown in Fig. 50. The sizes given for 
piping and tank are those suitable for a 10 to 20 H. P. 
oil engine. The internal piping in the tank is so placed 
to avoid any pressure which is created inside the tank 
due to the exhaust gases of the engine from entering 
the sewer. If any water is blown out at the top of the 
exhaust-pipe, a steam exhaust-head is used for obviat- 
ing this. This apparatus is the same as used on steam 
exhaust-pipes. 

Sizes for piping and tank for a 10 to 20 H. P. oil 
engine : 

Pipe from engine, 3" diameter. 
Pipe of water inlet, f " diameter. 
Pipe to atmosphere, 3" diameter. 
Pipe to water outlet, 2" diameter. 
Size of tank, 2' in diameter by 4' high. 



104 



OIL ENGINES. 



When it is required to partly silence the noise of 
exhaust only part or all of the water from the cooling 
jacket can be turned into the exhaust-pipe directly 
from the water-jacket. The water is allowed to run to 
waste again at the silencer. (See Fig. 51.) Wherever 
water is connected to the exhaust-pipe, care must be 
taken that none can under any condition enter through 




Fig. 51. 



the exhaust valve-box into the cylinder or vaporizer 
of the engine. Where water enters the silencer or the 
piping under pressure from the city main or otherwise, 
it is necessary that the area of the outlet-pipe be large 
enough to allow the water to drain freely at atmos- 
pheric pressure. If the water is not allowed free 
drainage, it may quickly fill up the silencer, and per- 
haps enter the valve-box of the engine, causing the 
engine to stop working. 



COOLING WATER-TANKS AND OTHER DETAILS. 105 

Self-Starters. — Engines of 25 H. P. and over 
should be provided with separate means of starting 
besides the relief-cam for reducing the pressure of 
compression as usually provided with the smaller sizes 
of engines. The weight of the fly-wheels and recipro- 
cating parts on the larger engines which are to be put 
in motion when being started necessarily entails con- 
siderable exertion, and the strength of two men is re- 
quired to do this work where no other means is pro- 
vided for this purpose. 

There are several different self-starting devices 
made for gas engines, and it is much easier to accom- 
plish this work with a gas than with an oil engine, since 
with the former gas only has to be dealt with and can 
be readily diluted w T ith air and an explosive mixture 
formed, whereas with the oil engine the fuel must be 
vaporized first and then mixed with the air before an 
explosive mixture is available to be ignited and the im- 
pulse on the piston obtained. In order, therefore, to 
accomplish these various operations necessary in the 
oil engine, sufficient power must be independently pro- 
vided to turn the engine crank-shaft over two or three 
revolutions so that the different mechanisms can work, 
the fuel be injected or inducted into the cylinder or va- 
porizer, become mixed with the incoming air and ari 
explosion obtained, thus giving the required impulse. 
This power is usually derived from a separate air reser- 
voir charged during the previous running of the 
engine or from a small air-compressor operated by 
hand. 

The self-starter used with the Hornsby-Akroyd type 



io6 



OIL ENGINES. 



of oil engine is shown in Fig. 52. The reservoir is con- 
nected to air and exhaust valve-box of engine through 
a supplementary valve-box containing two check- 
valves. These check-valves are arranged to be lifted 
from their seats by means of the hand-lever as shown. 
The following are the instructions in detail for start- 
ing these engines by means of this device. (These re- 




Fig. 52. 



marks are generally applicable to all types of engines 
provided with starting devices of this principle.) 

See that the valve A on the steel receiver is open, 
and also the cock B on the pipe leading from the hand 
air-pump. Put the starting lever in the quadrant at 
the position marked " Running and when charged/' 
and pin it there. Then screw down the valve C on the 
double valve-box, and pump air into the receiver by the 



COOLING WATER-TANKS AND OTHER DETAILS. 107 

air-pump up to a pressure of say 60 or 70 lbs. to 
the square inch as shown on the gauge. Then close the 
cock B on the air-pump pipe, withdraw the pin in the 
starting lever, and put it in the hole by the side of the 
lever to act as a stop ; then place the engine ready for 
starting- as elsewhere described. Place the crank a 
little over the dead centre in whichever direction the 
engine is intended to run, unscrew the valve C in 
double valve-box, and then suddenly push the starting 
lever forward to the end of the quadrant, and the en- 
gine will start. Pull the lever back immediately 
against the pin, and screw down the valves on the 
double valve-box and on the receiver. Before stop- 
ping the engine at any time, pull .the lever back and pin 
it in hole marked " To charge ;" unscrew the valves on 
the double valve-box and receiver, and allow the engine 
to pump air into the receiver again to 80 or 100 lbs. 
pressure ; put the lever to the centre hole marked 
u When running, and when charged," and pin it there ; 
screw down the valves on the receiver and valve-box, 
and the air pressure in the receiver will be retained in 
readiness to start the engine the next time it is re- 
quired. If an air-pump is not provided, the engine 
must be started in the usual way the first time, by pull- 
ing round the fly-wheel, and the receiver afterward 
filled each time before stopping. 

Utilization of Waste Heat. — It is frequently ad- 
vantageous to utilize the heat of exhaust gases and also 
the heat taken up by the cooling water as it issues from 
the cylinder water- jacket to heat the rooms of a build- 
ing or workshop. Sixty per cent, at least of the total 



io8 



OIL ENGINES. 



heat evolved from the fuel used in the engine is lost in 
the exhaust gases and to the cooling water around the 
cylinder- jacket. This represents a great waste, which 
can be partly saved in any installations where heat is 
-required for outside purposes. 

In instances where this heat can be utilized, the 
w.ater-pipes should be connected to the cylinder water- 
jacket outlet and inlet, and arranged to be carried to 



€ 



^ t 



^ c 






3 <c 



WA TER PIPING 



3 C 



3 C 



3 c 



3 <c 



2) 
3) 



2) 



^^T 




Fig. 53- 



supply heat to the building, as shown in Fig. 53. The 
hot water issues from the cylinder at not less than no° 
Fahrenheit temperature,, and will heat the piping as 
shown. With a 10 to 20 brake H. P. oil engine, 200 
feet of 2-inch piping can be suitably warmed. 

The heat from the exhaust gases can be similarly 
utilized, the exhaust-pipe being connected and carried 
along inside the building. In this case the standard 
size of piping should be slightly increased to avoid 
choking of exhaust gases, and care should be taken 
that the piping is not placed within 12 inches of timber. 



COOLING WATER-TANKS AND OTHER DETAILS. TOO, 




Fig. 54- 



IIO OIL ENGINES. 

The heat in the exhaust gases can also be extracted 
by the exhaust-pipes being passed through the device,' 
as shown in Fig. 54. Here the water is heated to 
nearly boiling-point, and will maintain a considerable 
length of piping at the required heat. With an engine 
of 15 brake H. P. 200 feet of piping can thus be heated. 
The heat obtained in these instances is assumed with 
the engine working at full load or nearly so. 

Fig. 54. This apparatus consists of an ordinary 
feed-water heater, with a number of " U"-shaped in- 
ternal tubes, through which the exhaust gases pass. 
The cold water flows in at the lower connection and 
circulates around the heated tubes, flowing out at the 
connection on the top of the apparatus, and passes in 
the piping around the building to be heated in the 
usual way, and returns by gravitation again to the 
lower connection. , 

Exhaust Temperature. — The temperature of the 
exhaust gases is difficult to ascertain correctly. The 
temperature of the exhaust from the Diesel engine is 
recorded by Professor Denton as being approximately 
740 Fahr. The temperature of different oil-engine 
exhaust gases varies, and it is probably considerably 
above that figure. This temperature varies also, of 
course, according to the size of the engine, and also 
according to the power that the engine is developing. 
The heat is greatest at full load and on the largest 
engines. 



CHAPTER V. 

OIL ENGINES DRIVING DYNAMOS. 

Oil engines for many reasons are well adapted for 
driving dynamos generating electric current in isolated 
lighting plants. A large number of such installations 
have been made in recent years. The oil engine is self- 
contained, and, unlike a gas engine, is independent of 
gas works or gas-producer plant for its supply of fuel. 
Small power installations with oil engines as prime 
movers should require also less attention than a plant 
equipped with steam engine and boilers. There is 
probably not the danger there is with a steam engine of 
explosion, and as the fuel used is ordinary kerosene of 
a safe flashing point, there can be little or no fear of 
destruction by fire. Practically, no hauling of fuel is 
required, nor is there, with an oil engine, any consump- 
tion of water if storage tanks are installed. Further, 
an oil engine does not deteriorate if only required for 
part of the year and left standing idle for the remainder 
of the time. With these and, perhaps, other advan- 
tages possessed by oil engines, their adaptability for 
driving dynamos in isolated electric-lighting and power 
plants may be understood. Fig. 55 illustrates an oil 



OTL ENGINES DRIVING DYNAMOS. I I 3 

engine driving dynamo with link belt. The dynamo is 
placed close to the engine to economize floor space. 

This plant is arranged with the cams having been 
set for the engine to run backwards. 

Installation. — In order that the plant may be en- 
tirely satisfactory and give the best results, it is very 
essential that the engine and dynamo be correctly 
located with regard to each other and properly installed 
at the outset. 

The foundations both for the engine and for the 
dynamo should be built of good cement concrete, and 
should be placed on solid ground, so that they are 
steady and without vibration. The engine foundation 
can be made as shown at Fig. 56. When, however, the 
ground that the foundation is built upon is not solid, 
it is preferred to build the foundation more tapered 
than shown toward the bottom, thus increasing the 
surface that the concrete rests on. The weight of the 
foundation is considered sufficient allowing about 5 
cubic feet per I. H. P. for engines under 50 H. P. for 
concrete. For engines over 50 I. H. P. the foundation 
can be reduced per I. H. P. If the foundation is built 
of brickwork, its dimensions should be somewhat 
greater than those given for concrete. The ingredients 
of the best concrete are broken stone, Portland cement 
and sharp sand. The following proportions form a 
good mixture : 

Portland cement 1 

Sand 3 

Broken stone 4 



114 



OIL ENGINES. 



P?N 











a 



OIL ENGINES DRIVING DYNAMOS. I 1 5 

When driving by belt the distance between the cen- 
tres of the dynamo and the engine-shafts is an im- 
portant feature. Where space is restricted and it be- 
comes essential that the dynamo be placed as close as 
possible to the engine, it is advantageous to use a link 
leather belt, allowed to run quite loose, the part of the 
belt in tension being underneath, the loose part being 
on top, so that the arc of contact made on the smaller 
pulley of the dynamo is as great as possible. This 
arrangement with loose belt lessens the friction on the 
bearings, which would be occasioned if the belt were 
made tight, as required at short centres with ordinary 
leather belt. When using link leather belt, the distance 
between the centres should be with the usual standard 
size of fly-wheels 2 to 2.5 diameters of the engine fly- 
wheels — that is, the distance should not be less than 7 
ft. for wheels of 3' 6" diameter and not greater 
than 15 ft. for wheels of 6 ft. diameter. Where or- 
dinary leather belt is used instead of link belt, this dis- 
tance should be increased to 3 diameters of fly-wheel, 
but in any case this dimension should not exceed 18 
ft. for driving wheels 6 ft. in diameter. To obtain 
absolutely steady light, it is sometimes advantageous to 
place a balance-wheel on the armature shaft of the dy- 
namo. This wheel if used should weigh about 15 
lbs. per K. W. of dynamo, and be of such diameter 
that at the maximum speed of dynamo its peripheral 
speed will not exceed 6000 ft. per minute. This 
wheel must be accurately balanced, and is usually cast 
in one piece with pulley, as shown in Fig. 57. The 



n6 



OIL ENGINES. 



necessary width of belt to transmit the H. P. may be 
calculated as follows : 



H. P. = 



V X w 



800 



H. P. = the actual horse-power. 

V = velocity of belt in feet per minute. 
w = width of belt in inches. 




*IG. 57- 



The maximum number of incandescent lights avail- 
able from the dynamo per brake or actual H. P. of 
engine varies according to the efficiency of the dynamo, 
and the efficiency of the means of transmission as well 
as to. the efficiency of the electrical installation. Lack of 



OIL ENGINES DRIVING DYNAMOS. 117 

power as recorded by the electrical instruments is not 
necessarily due only to defects of the engine, as leak- 
age of power may occur in various ways, as above 
stated. Usually ten 16 candle-power lights per Brake 
H. P. are calculated as being a fair load for the engine. 
With arc lamps of 2000 candle-power, the B. H. P. of 
engine for each lamp required is approximately .75. It 
is advisable to have spare power with an explosive 
engine above that required to run all the lights. Losses 
of power should be allowed for in the belt, which vary 
from 10 to 15 per cent. 

The regulation of explosive engines for electric 
lighting must necessarily be such that there is no 
flicker in the incandescent lights. A speed variation of 
2 per cent, is now guaranteed with several oil engines. 
This regulation gives a very good light and equals that 
developed with many steam engines. 

When space is not available to permit the use of belt 
transmission, the dynamo is connected directly on to 
the shaft of the engine, as in Figs. 58 and 58a. The 
coupling between engine-shaft and dynamo is usually 
flexible to allow of dynamo bearings and the engine- 
shaft bearings remaining in alignment when they be- 
come worn. In direct-connected plants the loss due to 
the belt transmission is avoided, and a saving is thus 
effected ; but, on the other hand, the first cost of the 
dynamo is very much greater, running, as it does, at a 
slower speed than the belt-driven machine, and there- 
fore is of larger dimensions, and consequently more 
costly. 

Fig. 58 illustrates a Hornsby-Akroyd engine of the 



OIL ENGINES DRIVING DYNAMOS. 1 19 

two-cylinder vertical type, coupled direct to the shaft of 
the dynamo, all placed on one bed-plate. 

The cranks of the engine are placed in line, and ac- 
cordingly an impulse at each revolution of the crank- 
shaft is obtained. The method of working and the de- 
tails of the vertical type of these engines are very simi- 
lar to those of the horizontal type elsewhere described. 
This outfit has given very satisfactory results with in- 
candescent lamp service, the variation in speed being 
less than 2 per cent, with varying loads, and a large 
number of these outfits are in use. 

Fig. 58a illustrates the Mietz & Weiss horizontal 
type of engine directly connected to dynamo through 
flexible coupling. This engine, being of the two-cycle 
type, receives an impulse at each revolution of the 
crank-shaft, and it runs very regularly and at a high 
rotative speed — namely, 400 revolutions per minute. 
The method of working of the Mietz & Weiss engine 
is fully described in Chapter IX. 

The fly-wheels of explosive engines intended for 
driving dynamos are usually made heavier than when 
the engines are required for other purposes. (See 
Chapter II.) 

Notwithstanding the special design of engines for 
electric-lighting purposes and apparent correct adjust- 
ment of the governing mechanism, the lights may 
sometimes be seen to flicker. Flickering in the incan- 
descent lights can be easily located by close inspection 
of the engine and dynamo, and may be due either 
to the fly-wheels, the governor, the belt, or the dynamo 
itself. To precisely locate this defect and remedy it, 




00 






OTL ENGINES DRIVING DYNAMOS. 121 

notice the lamps carefully. If the variations in the 
light arc clue to want of fly-wheel momentum, such 
variations will be seen to coincide with the number of 
revolutions of the engine. Again, if the variation in 
the lights is only periodical, then this defect should be 
remedied by adjustment of the, governor. Examine 
carefully the governing mechanism of the engine. If 
the variation is caused by the governor acting too 
slowly, then adjust so as to cause more rapid contact 
with the valve or other controlling mechanism. 

The cause of the trouble may not be, as already sug- 
gested, in the fly-wheel momentum or in the adjust- 
ment of the governor, but in the belt, which is fre- 
quently the sole cause of unsatisfactory lighting. The 
engine and dynamo pulleys over which the belt runs 
must be exactly in line with each other. The belt 
should be endless, or if jointed such joints should be 
very carefully made. A thick, uneven joint in the belt 
will cause a flicker in the lights each time it passes over 
the dynamo pulley. The belt should be allowed to run 
as loose as possible. The writer has seen belts running 
quite slack and most satisfactorily when the pulleys 
have been covered with specially prepared pulley-cover- 
ing material. In some instances in the dynamo itself 
may be found the cause of the variation in the voltage. 
If the commutator becomes unevenly worn, or if the 
brushes are not properly adjusted, unsteady lights will 
result, and then the commutator should be made of even 
surface and the brushes correctly adjusted. 

Oil engines can be stopped if desired by pressing 
button in the dwelling-house, an attachment being 



122 OIL ENGINES. 

added to some engines which automatically turns the 
stopping handle. This is an advantage where the light 
is required late at night, and allows the attendant to 
leave the engine early, at the same time providing 
requisite illumination as long as required. 

Air Suction. — The noise created by the air being 
drawn into the cylinder has, in some cases, to be 
silenced. This can be accomplished by connecting the 
air-inlet pipe to wooden box containing space at least 
five times as great as the volume of the cylinder — the 
sides of the box having holes which are lined with rub- 
ber. The total area of all these small inlet air holes" 
should be at least three times the area of the air-inlet 
pipe to the engine. 



CHAPTER VI. 

OIL ENGINES CONNECTED TO AIR-COM- 
PRESSORS, PUMPS, ETC. 

The use of compressed air is now being extensively 
applied as a means of power transmission, and it is 
coming more and more into favor in this connection 
also for actuating pneumatic tools, and for other pur- 
poses too numerous to mention. Many advantages are 
claimed for the combination of explosive engines con- 
nected to air-compressors as a motive power. 

Fig. 59 illustrates an oil engine direct-connected to 
a high-speed, single-acting air-compressor placed on 
the same base plate with the engine, the compressor be- 
ing actuated from the crank-disc keyed directly on to 
the engine crank-shaft. This outfit consists of seven 
H. P. engine and 8V' diameter and &|" stroke single- 
acting air-compressor running at 230 revolutions per 
minute, and delivering 65 cubic ft. of free air per 
minute at 30 lbs. pressure. 

Fig. 60 shows an oil engine geared to air-compressor 
of the ordinary double-acting type. In this outfit the 
power necessary to actuate the compressor is trans- 
mitted by gearing from the engine crank-shaft to the 
compressor-shaft, which then revolves at a slower 
speed than the engine-shaft. This arrangement is con- 




s 



OIL ENGINES CONNECTED TO AIR-COMPRESSORS. 125 

sidered advantageous, because of the slower motion 
of the air-compressor valves as compared with the 
direct-connected outfit. In each of the illustrations the 
air-compressor cylinder is water- jacketed, the circulat- 
ing water being supplied by the small pump actuated 
from the engine cam-shaft, the water being first de- 
livered to the compressor cylinder, and thence to the 
oil engine cylinder. This outfit consists of 13 B. H. P. 
oil engine and " Ingersoll-Sargent " double acting air- 
compressor having cylinder 8" diameter and 8" 
stroke, and running at 150 revolutions per minute, de- 
livering 70 cubic ft. of free air per minute at 70 to 80 
lbs. pressure. 

To calculate the H. P. required to actuate an air- 
compressor, the diameter of compressor cylinder and 
length of stroke being given as well as the required 
gauge pressure, then the mean pressure in the cylinder 
must be ascertained from the table given on page 126 
corresponding with gauge pressure required. The 
power necessary is then found by means of the follow- 
ing formulae : 

PLAN 
H. P.= — — . 

33,000 

P =_• mean effective pressure in pounds per square 
inch in cylinder as given in table. 

L = length of stroke in feet. 

A = area in cylinder in inches. 

N = number of revolutions per minute with single- 
acting compressor if double-acting x 2. 



126 



OIL ENGINES. 



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OIL ENGINES CONNECTED TO AIR-COMPRESSORS. \ 2.J 



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OIL ENGINES CONNECTED TO AIR-COMPRESSORS. 129 

For example, in the 8 J- X 8 J- inch single-acting 
direct-connected plant (Fig. 59), the theoretical power 
required to actuate the compressor is as follows : 



H. P. 



194 X 78 X 567 X 230 



H. P.: 



33,000 

= 5-98. 



As this represents only the power required to com- 
press the air, additional power must also be provided 
sufficient to overcome the friction of the compressor. 
In this case it will be noted that approximately 15 per 
cent, is allowed. 

Table III. — Efficiencies of Air-Compressors at 
Different Altitudes. 





Barometric 


, Pressure. 


•c!I- 
















G Decreased 


Altitude, 
feet. 








en eo 
O & 
t-3 o3 


£ Power 

Required, 
Per Cent. 


Inches, 


Pounds Per 




Mercury. 


Square Inch. 


^0 


^V 


& 


O 


30.OO 


14.75 


100. 





O. 


IOOO 


28.88 


14.20 


97- 


3 


1.8 


2000 


27.80 


I3.67 


93 




7 


3-5 


3000 


26.76 


13.16 


90 




10 


5.2 


4000 


25.76 


12.67 


«7 




13 


6.9 


5000 


24-79 


I2.20 


. «4 




16 


8.5 


6000 


23.86 


11-73 


81 




19 


10. 1 


7000 


22.97 


II.30 


78 




22 


11. 6 


8000 


22.11 


10.87 


76 




24 


i3-i 


9OOO 


21.29 


IO.46 


73 




27 


14.6 


I OOOO 


20.49 


IO.07 


70 




30 


16. 1 


1 1 OOO 


19.72 


9.70 


68 




32 


17.6 


12000 


18.98 


9-34 


65 




35 


19. 1 


13000 


18.27 


8.98 


63 




37 


20.6 


14000 


17-59 


8.65 


60 




40 


22.1 


15000 


16.93 


8.32 


58 




42 


23-5 



OIL ENGINES. 




OIL ENGINES CONNECTED TO AIR-COMPRESSORS. 13I 

The efficiency of an air compressor is reduced when 
working at high altitudes. Table III. gives such de- 
preciation in efficiency at the different altitudes. 

Oil-Engine Pumping Plants. — Fig. 61 represents 
an oil-engine pumping plant as installed for supplying 




Fig. 62. 



town or village water-supply. This outfit consists of 
13 H. P. oil engine connected by friction-clutch to the 
shaft of a triplex pump having cylinders 6\" diameter 
and 8" stroke. 

The amount of water delivered by this outfit is ap- 
proximately 165 gallons per minute, with total aver- 
age lift of 195 ft. The cost of fuel for running is 



I3 2 OIL ENGINES. 

about 13 cents per hour. Practically, no attention is 
required beyond starting the engine and occasional lu- 
brication. 

Fig. 62 shows a small outfit suitable for supplying 
water to a country-house, and consists of ii H. P. 
engine and pump capable of delivering 1200 gallons of 
water with 150 ft. total lift. 

To calculate the theoretical H. P. required to raise a 



^JBfc^ 1 




Fig. 63. 

given amount of water, multiply the number of gallons 
to be delivered per minute by 8.3, which gives the 
weight ; again, multiply by the total required lift in 
feet, and divide the result by 33,000, thus : 



Number of gallons X 8.3 X height of lift 
33,000 



OIL ENGINES CONNECTED TO AIR-COMPRESSORS. 1 33 

Example: 165 gallons 195 feet lift 
165 X 8.3 X 195 
33,000 
= 8 H. P. actually required to lift water. 

The friction of the moving parts of the pump has to 
be overcome, and for this and other losses allowance 
is usually made by figuring the efficiency of the pump 
(in the smaller size) at 60 per cent, to 70 per cent. 



Oil Engines Driving Ice and Refrigerating 
Machines. 

Oil engines are now being used in connection with 
small ice and refrigerating machines. 

Fig. 63 represents a plant of this description, con- 
sisting of an oil engine belted direct to a refrigerating 
machine used in this instance for cooling a butcher's 
cold-storage box. 

The refrigerating machines are rated according to 
the amount of ice they are assumed to displace. A 
one-ton machine is one which will effect the same 
cooling in twenty-four hours which a ton of ice would 
do in melting. The chief advantage of the refrigerat- 
ing machine is that while the ice can only produce a 
temperature of 35 ° Fahr. and upward, the refrigerat- 
ing machine can be operated to produce any tempera- 
ture which may be desired. . 

In the process of refrigeration, the work which the 



134 0IL ENGINES. 

oil engine has to do is to drive a compressor, and there- 
fore the same principles may be applied to this machine 
as to the ordinary air-compressor already discussed. 
We need only to know how much gas has to be com- 
pressed and the conditions upon which to base the cal- 
culation for the work done in the compressor. It is 
the practice of refrigerating-machine makers to allow 
about 4.5 cubic ft. displacement per ton of refrigera- 
tion — that is to say, a 10-ton machine is one having 
capacity of pumping 45 cubic ft. of gas per minute. 

In the case of the ordinary compressor, we have only 
to consider the final pressure, since the initial pressure 
is always that of the atmosphere. In the case of the 
refrigerating machine, how r ever, this is not the case, 
for the gas being circulated in a closed circuit may 
have not only a varying final pressure, but also a vary- 
ing suction pressure. These pressures depend upon 
the temperatures obtaining in the cold room and in 
the condenser in a manner which it is not necessary 
to consider in detail. The initial pressure and the final 
pressure being known, the mean pressure may be cal- 
culated in the ordinary way. 

To facilitate this calculation, table No. IV. may be 
consulted. The vertical left-hand column gives the 
initial pressure corresponding to the temperatures 
named in the second column, these being the tempera- 
tures inside the cooling pipes. The top horizontal line 
gives the pressure corresponding to the temperatures 
in the second horizontal line. These temperatures are 
those obtaining in the condenser. 



OIL ENGINES CONNECTED TO AIR-COMPRESSORS. 1 35 



00 



© 



ON CO 
C\ o 



On 

o 



00 
o 



t^~ CO 

On hh 



o ^ CO 
vo vo vO 



to On N vo CO w co "^ 

N N 00 00 CO On On ON 



O 

8 



o 
o 



^- o 

10 tJ- 



Cn On 00 CO CO CO 
to CO vo to On r-» 



CO M 



00 
vO 



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00 00 



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00 00 00 



0) 

s 

■a 

C 



00 






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CO M 



co N N 

10 vo vo 



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01 vo Tj" 



00 
00 



VO CO M 
10 to VO 



to CO 

VO VO 



ON O HH 

N CO CO 



00 



O 



00 00 
vO o 



O vo 

o o 



VO M 

00 00 



CO N \o 00 

CJ M tO N 



CO VO ON 

to to 10 



cn 10 r^ 

vo vo vo 



ON «H 

vo J>* 



Tf- Tf- Ti- 



re 



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00 



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m N 00 
10 O ON 



vo 10 ci 
Tf co to 



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to to to 



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to 10 to 



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B 

































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1 1 


— 
1 


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N 


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I36 OIL ENGINES. 

The mean pressure corresponding to any two known 
conditions may therefore be taken *rom the table ; for 
example, with a suction pressure of 28 and a condenser 
pressure of 153, the mean pressure is 67.02 pounds. 
The work required to produce a ton of refrigeration, 
therefore, would be 



in which 



33,000 



P = 67.02 pounds. 

L = 4.5 feet. 

A = 144 square inches = 1 sq. ft. 

N= 1. 

Substituting these values, the horse-power is 1.32. 
No allowance is here made for friction, and in small 
refrigerating machines this should be extremely liberal. 

Moreover, on reference to the table it will be seen 
that the machine may happen to be called upon to work 
under conditions where the mean pressure will be very 
much increased ; such, for example, when the back 
pressure is 51 lbs. and the high pressure is 218 lbs. 
Under these circumstances the mean pressure will 
be 94.52 instead of 67.02. For these reasons it is not 
safe to provide for a refrigerating machine of small 
dimensions a power much less than about 3 H. P. per 
ton of refrigeration. Under ordinary conditions of 
running, less than this, and frequently only one-half of 
this will be required, but provision should be made for 
taking care of extreme conditions. 



OIL ENGINES CONNECTED TO AIR-COMPRESSORS. T 3/ 

Friction-Clutches. — Where engines of 10 H. P. 
or over are installed, it is a great advantage to have a 
friction-clutch pulley added. This can be attached 
either to the engine crank-shaft or to the intermediate 
or main shaft. Fast-and-loose pulleys are sometimes 
substituted for the friction-clutch. 

With either friction-clutch or fast-and-loose pulleys 
the advantages gained are, first, the ease with which 
the engine can be started, *the loose or friction- 
clutch pulley only instead of the whole shaft has to be 
turned when the plant is started, and, secondly, in case 
of accident or other emergency necessitating the quick 
cessation of the revolving machinery, this can be ac- 
complished at once by simply moving over the handle 
of the friction-clutch and pulley. Otherwise without 
the clutch the heavy fly-wheels of the engine remain 
revolving for a minute or so after the fuel of the engine- 
is turned off, and being directly connected by belt to 
the shafting and machinery, the whole plant is in mo- 
tion while the momentum of the fly-wheels exists. 

Friction-clutches are made of various designs by sev- 
eral manufacturers. That shown in Fig. 63a is espe- 
cially adapted for explosive engines. It consists of a 
carrier which bolts to the regular bosses on the fly- 
wheel of the engine, this carrier acting as the journal 
of the pulley, and the mechanism of the clutch is en- 
closed in the same. The clutch has a side grip. The 
pulley, otherwise loose, is thrown into connection with 
the engine fly-wheel by simply pushing in a spindle on 
which a hand-wheel revolves loosely. Two rollers are 
mounted on the end of the spindle, and bearing on 



138 



OIL ENGINES. 



these rollers are the levers which in turn are pivoted to 
the gripping plate and a lug on the levers abuts against 
the adjusting screw. The inward movement of the 
spindle forces these levers apart and draws the grip- 
ping plate in, thus gripping the pulley in a circular vise 



^ENGINE FLY WHEEL 

-'SHOWLNG METHOD OF ATTACHING CLUTCH 




Fig. 63a. 



between the flange on the carrier and the gripping- 
plate. To release the clutch the spindle is pulled out, 
and thereby the strain on the levers is removed, thus 
allowing the pulley to run loose. This clutch is known 
as the B and C Friction Clutch Pulley. 



CHAPTER VII. 

INSTRUCTIONS FOR RUNNING' OIL EN- 
GINES. 

The attendant, in order to obtain the best results 
from an engine, should first fully understand the 
principle by which the engine he is running works 
and the conditions which it is essential should ex- 
ist in the cylinder to procure proper explosion and 
combustion. These conditions are practically the 
same in all types of oil engines. The explosive mixture 
consists of hydrocarbon gas and atmospheric air, the 
gas being formed from kerosene oil previously gasefied 
or -vaporized and properly mixed with air by one or 
other of the different methods, as described in Chap- 
ter I. This mixture is then compressed by the inward 
stroke of the piston before ignition with the two-cycle 
type of engine. The mixture is afterward ignited by 
hot tube, electricity, heated surfaces, or otherwise, as 
also described in Chapter I., and the required impulse 
is then obtained at the piston. If for any reason these 
conditions are not existing, proper explosion and com- 
bustion will not follow. The several reasons which 
prevent proper explosions being obtained are very fully 
described in Chapter III. on " Testing.'' 



140 ' OIL ENGINES. 

The conditions necessary to insure proper working 
are as follows : 

(a) Oil supply to the vaporizer or combustion 
chamber delivered at the correct time, and in such 
quantity as to form proper explosive mixture. Effi- 
cient supply of air. 

(b) Sufficient pressure in the cylinder by compres- 
sion before ignition. 

(c) Correct ignition of the gases, the ignition tak- 
ing place at the proper time. 

Cylinder Lubricating Oil. — It is essential that a 
suitable lubricating oil be used for the piston. The 
great heat evolved in the cylinders of explosive engines 
renders this essential. 

The lubricating oil recommended for this purpose is 
a light mineral oil having a flash point of not less than 
360 Fahr. and fire test 420 Fahr. Gravity test 25.8, 
and having a viscosity of 175 (Saybold test). If waste- 
oil filter is used, the oil filtered must not be employed 
for lubricating the piston at any time. 

The following are instructions as formulated by the 
makers of the different engines, each of the four types 
of vaporizers being here represented, as well as the 
different kinds of igniting devices. 



Hornsby-Akroyd Type. 

The method of working is explained in Chap- 
ter IX., giving general description of these engines. 
The oil-tank in the base of the engine should be filled 



INSTRUCTIONS FOR RUNNING OIL ENGINES. 14! 

and the oil pumped up by hand until it passes the over- 
sow pipe. The water-tanks if used must also be filled 
to the top and the cylinder water-jacket also be full 
of water before starting. 

Preparing to Start the Engine. — On those en- 
gines in which the vaporizer is partially water-jack- 
eted, the valve on the inlet water-pipe should be closed 
before commencing to heat the vaporizer for starting, 
and opened, or partially opened, when running. 

To Heat the Vaporizer. — A coil lamp is used (see 
illustration, Fig. 64) for this purpose; the lamp reser- 
voir should be nearly filled with oil. A little kerosene 
should then be poured into the cup containing asbestos 
wick under the coil and lighted. When this has nearly 
burnt out, pump up the reservoir with air by the air- 
pump, when oil vapor will issue from the small nipple, 
and on being lighted will give a clear flame. When 
it is required to stop the lamp, turn the little thumb- 
screw on the reservoir-filling nozzle and let the air out, 
and remove the lamp from the bracket. The nipple at 
any time can be cleaned with the small prickers which 
are supplied for this purpose. Should the U-tubes get 
choked up, the lower one can be gotten at by unscrew- 
ing the joint just below it, and the other one by screw- 
ing out the nipple from which the oil vapor issues. 
The heating of the vaporizer is one of the most im- 
portant duties to be attended to, and care must be taken 
that it is made hot enough before starting. The at- 
tendant must see that the lamp is burning properly for 
five or ten minutes, or sometimes a little longer, ac- 
cording to the size of the engine. If, however, the 



142 



OIL ENGINES. 



lamp is burning badly, it may take longer to get the 
proper heat. It is most important that the lamp should 
be carefully attended to. 




Fig. 64. 



To Start the Engine.— Place the starting handle 
to position " Shut/' and work the pump-lever up and 
down until the oil is seen to pass the overflow-valve:. 



INSTRUCTIONS FOR RUNNING OIL ENGINES. I43 

Then turn the handle to position " Open/' work the 
pump-lever up and down again, one or two strokes, 
then give the fly-wheel one or two turns, and the engine 
will start readily. There is also a handle upon the 
cam-shaft, which, when starting the engine, must be 
placed in the position marked " To Start," and imme- 
diately the engine has gotten up speed this handle 
should be placed in position marked " To Work." 




Fig. 65. 



(See Fig. 65.) When it is required to stop the engine, 
turn the starting handle to the position marked " Shut." 
If too much oil is pumped into vaporizer before start- 
ing it will be difficult to start up. 

Oiling Engine. — See that the oil-cups on the main 
crank-shaft bearings are fitted with proper wicks 
and with other oil-cups are filled with oil. Oil the 



i 4 4 



OIL ENGINES. 



small end of the connecting-rod which is inside the pis- 
ton, also the bearings on horizontal shaft and the skew- 
gearing, the rollers at the ends of the valve-levers and 
their pins, and the pins on which the levers rock, the 
governor spindle and joints, the bevel-wheels which 
drive same, and the joints that connect the governor 




Fig. 66. 



to the small relief-valve on the vaporizer valve-box. 
For such purposes, none but the best engine oil should 
be used. 

Oil-Pump. — When the engine is working at its full 
power the distance between the two round flanges A 
and B on the pump-plunger should be such that the 
gauge " i" will just fit in between the flanges. (See 



INSTRUCTIONS FOR RUNNING OIL ENGINES. 145 

Fig. 66.) The other lengths on the hand-gauge marked 
" 2" and " 3" are useful for adjusting the pump to 
economize oil when running on a medium or a light 
load. Do not screw down the pump packing tight 
enough to interfere with the free working of the 
plunger. 

Running Engines Light or Nearly So. — When 
engines are required to run with light or no load, it is 
best to alter the stroke of the pump to supply only suf- 
ficient oil to keep the engine running at full speed, so 
that the governor occasionally reduces the oil. The 
inlet water-pipe to the vaporizer-jacket should be 
closed when running light also. 

Air-Inlet and Exhaust Valves. — See that the 
air-inlet and exhaust valves are working properly and 
drop onto their seats. They can at any time, if re- 
quired, be made tight by grinding in with a little flour 
of emery and water. The set-screws at the ends of the 
levers that open these valves must not be screwed up 
so high that the valves cannot close ; this can be ascer- 
tained by seeing that the rollers at the other end of 
the levers are just clear of the cams when the project- 
ing part of the cams is not touching them. (See Fig. 

67.) 

Vaporizer Valve-Box. — In this box there are two 
valves. The vertical one is regulated by the governor, 
and when the engine runs too fast the governor pushes 
it down, thus opening it and allowing some oil to over- 
flow into the by-pass, which should only allow oil to 
pass when the governor presses it down, or when the 
starting handle is turned to " Shut." The horizontal 



I46 OIL ENGINES. 

valve in this box is a back-pressure valve, and should 
a leakage occur it may be discovered by slightly open- 
ing the overflow-valve (by pressing it down with the 
hand), when, if there is a leakage, vapor will issue from 
the overflow-pipe, and in that case the valve should be 
examined, and, if necessary, be taken out for inspection 
and ground on its seat w r ith a little emery flour and 
water. If the horizontal valve and sleeve are taken out, 
care should be taken, in replacing them, to use the 
same thickness of jointing material as before. 

Oil-Pipes. — The pipe from the pump to the vapor- 
izer valve-box has a gradual rise from the pump; if 




Fig. 67. 

otherwise, an air-pocket would be formed in which air 
would be compressed upon each stroke of the pump, 
and thus allow the oil to enter slowly and not as it 
should do, suddenly. If the oil gets below the filter 
at any time, work the pump by hand a few minutes, 
holding open the overflow-valve in the vaporizing 
valve-box, so as to get the air well out of the pipes. 
The oil-filter should be taken out and cleaned occa- 
sionally. 



[NSTRUCTIONS FOR RUNNING OIL ENG1 X ES . 



147 



Spray Holes. — It may be desirable to take off the 
vaporizer valve-box and clean the little hole or holes 
through which the oil issues. The reamers, or small 
wires supplied, are not for increasing the size of the 
hole, but are simply for cleaning it at any time. 

Testing Oil-Pump. — See that the pump gets its 
proper oil supply. Disconnect the oil-supply pipe 
union attached to vaporizer valve-box, and give the 




Fig. 



pump two or three strokes so as to pump oil up ; then 
press the thumb firmly on the end of the pipe, as shown 
in illustration, Fig. 68. Pump both by a sudden 
jerk, and afterward by a steady pressure. If the 
plunger yields to a sudden jerk and no oil has gotten 
past the thumb over the top of the delivery-pipe, then 
the pump or the pipes contain air. If the plunger does 
not yield to a sudden jerk, but slowly falls under a 
constant pressure, then the suction-valves of pump are 



I48 OIL ENGINES. 

not tight. If necessary, the valve-seats can be renewed 
by lightly driving the cast-steel ball valves onto their 
seats with a small copper punch. If it is required to 
see that the vaporizer valve-box is in order, take off the 
vaporizer valve-box body and sleeve, and connect them 
to the oil-supply pipe from the pump, so that the jet 
from the spraying hole can be directed where it can be 
seen. Work the pump by hand, when the jet produced 
should be clear, with distinct and abrupt pauses be- 
tween each delivery. 

The Governor " Hunting." — This may be caused 
by the joints or spindle of the governor becoming bent, 
dirty, or sticky, and requiring cleaning. If the pump 
is not giving a regular supply of oil, it may sometimes 
cause the governor to hunt, and the engine would run 
irregularly. This may occur when the engine is first 
started. 

The Crossley Patent Type. 

Starting. — Heat the ignition-tube by means of the 
lamp in the usual way. The pressure (about 60 
lbs.) necessary to raise the oil to the lamp in this 
engine is taken from the oil-tank, the air pressure be- 
fore starting being created by hand. This lamp heats 
both the ignition-tube to a good red heat and vaporizer 
blocks to less heat simultaneously. The necessary 
pressure to raise the oil to the lamp is maintained by 
the pump actuated from the cam-shaft when the en- 
gine is running. 

Priming Cup. — Fill the little brass priming cup on 



INSTRUCTIONS FOR RUNNING OIL ENGINES. I49 

the top of the vaporizer cover with oil ; open the valve 
and let the oil pass through into the vaporizer, and 
then shut it again. Leave the wire on the chain out of 
the measurer. Place the exhaust roller over to engage 
with the one-half compression cam ; turn the fly-wheel 
until the crank-pin is about one inch above the hori- 
zontal (both valves being closed) ; open the stop- valve 
on the end of air-receiver ; connect up the oil-pump by 
replacing the back-pin, having first made a few strokes 
with the hand-pump until the oil-pipe is full up to the 
measurer, and turn the quadrant on air-throttle valve. 
The engine is now ready to start, and the air under pres- 
sure from receiver may be let in. Loosen the screw of 
starter valve ; open the valve by means of the loose lever, 
and hold open until the crank has just passed the verti- 
cal position. This impulse will be sufficient to turn the 
fly-wheel a few times, during which the piston will re- 
ceive regular impulses. The exhaust roller may then be 
moved ofif the one-half compression, when full speed 
will be steadily attained. 

As soon as convenient the screw on the starting 
valve may be unscrewed to allow the receiver to be- 
come recharged again. Should the engine miss explo- 
sions and fail to attain full speed, then turn the lid of 
measurer partly around and give a little extra supply 
of oil from a hand-can. 

Air Supply. — At full speed the air-throttle must be 
opened to admit more air, and the amount must be 
judged as to whether the engine ignites its charges or 
not; too much air will cause it to miss fire — too little 
air causes too sharp firing. If the receiver is not 



I50 OIL ENGINES. 

charged, and it is required to start engine by hand, pull 
around the fly-wheel and get up as much speed as pos- 
sible before putting the governor blade in position for 
engaging with the governor mechanism which opens 
the gas-valve. 

Vaporizer Block. — The vaporizer block must be 
well heated previous to starting; otherwise unvapor- 
ized oil will be carried over into cylinder, and thus 
make starting uncertain until the oil has all passed 
away in evaporation. This may also cause puffs of 
vapor to rush out of the air inlet at the top of the 
chimney, preceded by a slight explosion in the vapor- 
izer block. This is caused by late ignition in cylinder, 
and is due to insufficient vaporization or to the ignition- 
tube not being hot enough. 

Vapor Valve. — If small puffs of vapor issues 
out of the air-pipe of the chimney every other revolu- 
tion while the engine is running, it is a proof that the 
vapor-valve is not tight and must be cleaned and 
ground on its seating. 



Campbell Oil Engine. 

Starting. — Before starting the engine, see that the 
vaporizer is thoroughly well heated. The lamp under 
the vaporizer should burn with a long, bright flame. 
When the vaporizer is sufficiently heated, throw the 
governor drop-lever down, thus holding the exhaust- 
valve open and relieving the compression. While this 
lever is held down, give a quarter or a half turn of the 



INSTRUCTIONS FOR RUNNING OIL ENGINES. 151 

oil-cock ; then turn the fly-wheel quickly four or five 
revolutions, and allow the governor drop-lever to be 
free. It will swing up clear of the exhaust-lever and 
allow a charge of air and oil to be driven into the vapor- 
izer ; the engine should then commence working. After 
the engine has started, turn on a little more oil. If the 
oil taken into the vaporizer should not explode prop- 
erly, the oil-cock must be shut and opened again 
quickly to allow any superfluous oil which has lodged 
in the vaporizer to be drawn out of it and vaporized. 
When using a heavy oil, open the inlet-valve to allow 
more air to flow into the vaporizer. 

Air and Oil Supply. — Too much oil passing to the 
vaporizer will cause the engine to miss exploding or to 
explode irregularly. To increase the air supply, 
slacken the nuts and tension of air-inlet valve ; by 
tightening the nuts and spring, the air supply is de- 
creased. 

Ignition-Tube. — See that the inside of the ig- 
nition-tube is kept clear from oil, and keep all the 
valves clean and the governors free from oil and dirt. 
When the engine is running properly, the quantity of 
oil required is the same, whether the engine is running 
at light or heavy load. 

Governors. — The governors cut out some of the 
charges at light loads and admit more charges of oil at 
heavy loads ; each charge, however, has the same com- 
position of vapor and air. 



152 OIL ENGINES. 



The Priestman Type. 

Starting. — Open the drain-cock in the vaporizer 
and see that the vaporizer contains no oil ; then close 
the cock. Fill the oil-tank to the small upper-pet cock, 
through the strainer provided and screw down the re- 
lief air-valve. Lubricate the piston w T rist-pin and the 
crank-bearing between the fly-wheels. Drop a little oil 
on the pump-piston and in the oil holes of the bearings 
of the large gear-wheels, the eccentric, and all other 
bearings. Mineral oil must not be used on the governor 
oil spindle which projects into the spray-maker. 

Electric Igniter. — Raise the electric fork-handle 
slightly. This is done in order to produce the igniting 
spark somewhat later for starting than is required when 
the engine is running at full speed. Turn the fly-wheels 
forward until the small knob on the cam-shaft has just 
passed the contact with the forks, and the crank-pin is 
then just clear of the large gear-wheel. 

Heating Vaporizer. — Heat the vaporizer until the 
lower part of the feed-pipe leading to the inlet-valve is 
too hot to be comfortably held by hand. When the va- 
porizer is sufficiently heated, pump up 6 or 8 lbs. 
gauge air pressure in the oil-tank with the hand- 
pump ; open the oil-cock, and then give the fly-wheels a 
"few turns with the starting handle. After starting, 
move the electric fork-handle down as far as it will go. 

Air Supply. — Set the air-relief valves for giving 
about 8 to 10 lbs. air pressure in the oil-tank. The most 
suitable running pressure in a given locality as indi- 



INSTRUCTIONS FOR Kl/NNING OIL ENGINES. T 53 

cated by the gauge, has to be determined by experiment. 
With the air pressure too low or too high, the engine 
may miss explosions. The best test for this is the color 
of the ignition-plug. When the pressure is right, the 
plug will be perfectly clean. If the plug is coated with 
an oily black substance, it is a sign of too much oil — 
that is, too high a pressure. To stop the engine, turn 
off the oil-cock. When stopped, see that the electric 
circuit is not closed, or the battery energy will be 
wasted. 

General Remarks. — If an oil engine is working 
properly and efficiently, it should run smoothly to the 
eye, without knocking either in the cylinder or bear- 
ings. The piston should continue to work clean and be 
well lubricated, without any apparent carbon or gummy 
deposit. The exhaust gases at the outlet-pipe should 
be invisible or nearly so. The explosion should be 
regular and should be only reduced in pressure when 
the governor is reducing the explosive charge and al- 
lowing only part or none of the charge of oil to enter 
the cylinder. 

If the piston is black and gummy, or if the exhaust 
gases are like smoke, then the combustion inside the 
cylinder is recognized as being incomplete, and the 
cause should at once be ascertained and remedied. 

Bad combustion may be due to several reasons, but is 
chiefly caused by improper mixture of air and gases in 
the cylinder, due either to too much oil entering into 
the vaporizer or to insufficient amount of air being 
drawn in mixed with the hydrocarbon gas. To remedy 
this defect, examine the oil-inlet valves or spraying de- 



154 OIL ENGINES. 

vice carefully ; also see that air and exhaust valves are 
allowed to drop freely on their seats, and that springs 
or other mechanism for closing the valves are in good 
shape. Examine piston-rings and ascertain that the 
rings are in good order and are not allowing leakage 
of air to pass them. 

Regulation of Speed. — To alter speed of the en- 
gine with the hit-and-miss type of governor, the spring 
is strengthened or the weight reduced to increase 
speed. The weight is effectively increased by moving 
it toward the end of the lever away from the fulcrum- 
pin, and vice versa to reduce speed. The strength of 
the spring is increased by tightening down the thumb- 
screw nut. With the Porter type of governor where 
counterbalance with movable counterweight is pro- 
vided, the speed is accelerated by increasing the sup- 
plementary weight, or by placing it nearer the end of 
the lever. ■ If the centrifugal force of the revolv- 
ing weights is controlled by a spring instead of 
weight, then the speed is increased by strengthening 
the spring. 

Reversing Direction of Rotation. — In order to 
reverse the direction of rotation of an explosive engine, 
it is necessary to change the relative position of the 
cams actuating the air and exhaust valves and fuel 
supply so as to alter the periods of opening and closing 
of these valves, and also to change the period of fuel 
supply. In those engines in which one cam controls 
both the air-inlet valve and the fuel supply, the shift- 
ing of this one cam alone effects the change necessary. 
Where the fuel supply is operated separately, the cam 



INSTRUCTIONS FOR RUNNING OIL ENGINES. 155 

or eccentric controlling- this mechanism must be moved 
correspondingly with the air-valve cam. 

The following diagrams give the correct positions 




Fig. 69. 



of the opening and closing of the valves when the 
engine is running in each direction, and the cams as set 
for each case are shown in Fig. 69, the slot for key- 
way in the air-inlet cam having been changed only. 



I56 OIL ENGINES. 

Where the air-inlet valve is automatic and the ex- 
haust-valve only is actuated from the crank-shaft, then, 
to reverse the direction of rotation of the crank-shaft, 
the position of the exhaust-cam only is changed, corre- 
sponding to the position as marked for the exhaust- 
valve in diagram shown in Fig. 69. 






CHAPTER VIII. 
REPAIRS. 

Oil Engines as made by most of the makers are of 
substantial construction, with ample bearing surfaces, 
and consequently require few repairs. The lower initial 
pressures of explosion evolved in oil engines as com- 
pared with some gas and gasoline engines considerably 
lessens the severe shock to the piston and to the crank- 
shaft bearings and connecting-rod bearings. All 
machinery requires repairs more or less according to 
the care that it receives, and oil engines are not an ex- 
ception to this rule. 

The Piston should be drawn out occasionally ; this 
is done by uncoupling the connecting-rod crank end 
bearings and pulling the piston out. Chain-block is 
sometimes added to the installation of large engines, 
and it is a very useful adjunct when it is required to take 
out the piston or when other repairs have to be made. 
Where no arrangement of this kind is available when 
the piston is to be taken out, wooden packing is placed 
in the engine-bed, on which the piston can rest as it is 
drawn out. Care should be taken that the weight of 
the piston as it is drawn from the cylinder .does not 
fall on, the piston-rings or they may thus be broken. 



158 OIL ENGINES. 

With the vertical type of engine the piston is taken out 
from the top, the cylinder head and other parts having 
been removed. 

The piston should be washed with kerosene and well 
cleaned. When putting piston back in place, each ring 
should be put separately in exact position in its groove 
as regards the dowel-pin in piston groove before the 
ring enters the cylinder. The piston, the rings, and the 
inside of the cylinder must all be carefully cleaned and 
well lubricated with proper oil before being again put 
in place. Where the rings require cleaning, this can 
be accomplished by washing with kerosene. If, how- 
ever, the piston-rings are to be taken off the piston, 
they must be separately sprung open by having pieces 
of sheet metal about 1-16" thick and about \" wide in- 
serted between ring and body of piston. 

Air and exhaust valves should also be periodically 
taken out, cleaned and examined, and, if necessary, re- 
ground in. Powdered emery or glass powder is con- 
sidered satisfactory to grind the valves in with. 

Care should be taken, in replacing valves, that they 
are clean and free from rust or carbon, and are allowed 
to drop on their seats freely and do not stick in their 
guides. 

The crank-shaft bearings will periodically require 
taking up as they show signs of wear and commence 
to knock or pound. Usually, for this adjustment, 
liners are left between the cap and the lower half of 
bearings. These liners can be occasionally reduced in 
thickness, so that the cap is allowed to come down 
close on to the shaft. Great care must be taken, in 



REPAIRS. 



159 



tightening clown the bearing again after adjustment, 
that it is not bolted down too tight on the shaft bear- 
ings ; otherwise heating will result and the bearings 
and journal may be cut and damaged in running. 

The connecting-rod bearings will require adjustment 
more often than the crank-shaft or main bearings. 




Fig. 70. 



When this is necessary, the engine will be heard to 
knock at each revolution, and then the bearing should 
be taken apart at the crank-pin bearing and about 
1-64" filed off. (See A, Fig. 70.) As with the crank- 
shaft bearings, great care, in putting bearing back in 
place, must be exercised, first to see that it is thor- 
oughly clean and free from dirt, and also, when read- 
justed, that it has a slight motion sideways and can 
thus be moved by hand. 

When fitting new piston-ring, it is well to place the 



l6o OIL ENGINES. 

ring in the cylinder correctly; it should have slight 
space, about 1-64" left for the expansion between the 
joint which will take place when heated in working. 

After fitting new worm or spur gearing to the valve 
motion, the positions of the cams should be tested by 
turning the fly-wheel over by hand. The correct posi- 
tions of the cams are shown on diagram, Fig. 32. 

The oil-filter requires occasional renewing; this can 
be made of muslin placed between wire gauze, as 
shown in Fig. 28. The oil-supply pump-valves, if 
they consist of steel balls, can be refitted to their seats 
by being tapped when in place with copper plug or 
piece of wood. When renewing governor parts, care 
must be taken that the new part is free and works 
without friction; this is very essential where close 
regulation of speed is required. 



CHAPTER IX. 

VARIOUS ENGINES DESCRIBED. 

The Crossley Oil Engines. 

Figure 71 represents recent design of high-speed 
electric-light oil engine of 25 effective or brake H. P. 
This special type of engine is fitted with one heavy fly- 
wheel on extended shaft and outside bearing instead 
of the two fly-wheels, one on each side of the engine, 
as arranged in the smaller sizes. The method of va- 
porizing and igniting used with the Crossley engine is 
fully described in Chapter I. devoted to that subject. 

The fuel oil-tank is placed against the cast-iron base 
of the engine, and the oil is pumped to the vaporizer 
in the usual way by an oil-pump actuated by the cam- 
shaft and in regular fixed quantities, but the fuel is 
allowed to enter the vaporizer only in exactly the 
proper quantity, the oil supply being controlled by the 
special measuring device, which consists of an inlet 
automatic valve leading to the vaporizer and an over- 
flow-pipe leading back to the oil-tank. If the oil supply 
from the pump at any time is greater than the amount 
of oil which should enter the vaporizer, the fuel is re- 



VARIOUS ENGINES DESCRIBED. 



ir >3 



jected by the oil-measuring device, which is actuated 

by the partial vacuum in the cylinder during the air- 




Diagram from the Crossley Engine: Revolutions per minute, 
180; M. E. P., 69 lbs.; compression pressure, 48 lbs.; 
maximum pressure, 240 lbs. 




Diagram from Crossley Engine: Revolutions per minute, 
180; M. E. P., 50 lbs.; compression pressure, 50 lbs.; 
maximum pressure, 180 lbs. 

suction period. The oil then returns through the over- 
flow-pipe to the tank. 



164 



OIL ENGINES. 



The centrifugal governor is actuated by separate 
gearing and horizontal shaft direct from the crank- 




shaft, and the governor regulates the speed of the 
engine by acting on the hit-and-miss system, and con- 



VARIOUS ENGINES DESCRIBED. 165 

trols the vapor inlet- valve to the cylinder. Thus, if 
the required speed of the engine is exceeded, the 
vapor-valve is not opened, and accordingly only air is 
drawn into the cylinder through the air-inlet valve on 
the top of the cylinder, which is actuated by eccentric 
from the cam-shaft. No oil vapor is drawn into the 
cylinder, and the next explosion is missed. The lamp 
for heating the vaporizer receives its supply from the 
oil-tank placed against the base of the engine. The oil 
for the lamp is supplied by a separate pump, both oil- 
pumps being actuated from the same eccentric. 

The Cundall Oil Engine. 

This oil engine is illustrated in Fig. *]2 y and it 
has oil-tank in the cast-iron base of engine, the fuel be- 
ing pumped to the vaporizer in the usual way, the oil 
supply being regulated by a small adjustable thimble 
inside the cup on the vaporizer. The vaporizer and 
tube are heated by separate lamp supplied from oil-tank 
placed above the engine by gravity feed. Both air and 
exhaust valves are actuated from the horizontal cam- 
shaft in the usual way. The centrifugal governor is 
operated by bevel-gearing from the cam-shaft and con- 
trols the speed by acting on the oil-inlet valve. 



The Campbell Oil Engine. 

Fig. 73 illustrates larger-sized engine fitted with one 
fly-wheel only and outside bearing suitable for electric- 




fe 



VARIOUS ENGINES DESCRIBED. 



167 



lighting purposes. The vaporizing and igniting appa- 
ratus of this type is described in Chapter I. The fuel 




Light-load diagram taken from Campbell engine: Cylinder, 
9.5" in diameter; stroke, 18"; revolutions per minute, 210; 
M. E. P., 55.9 lbs. 




Full-load diagram from Campbell Engine: Cylinder, 9.5" in 
diameter; 18" stroke; revolutions per minute, 210; 
M. E. P., 69.25; compression pressure, 55 lbs.; maximum 
pressure, 232 lbs. 



oil-tank is placed on the top of the cylinder and the 



l68 OIL ENGINES. 

fuel is fed by gravitation to the vaporizer and to the 
heating lamp, there being no oil-pumps. There are only 
two valves — the air-inlet valve, which is automatic, and 
the exhaust- valve, which is operated by the cam, which 
is actuated by spur-gearing from the crank-shaft, the 
necessary power to open the valve being transmitted 
through the horizontal rod in compression. The cen- 
trifugal governor is mounted on separate horizontal 
shaft, and is actuated by separate gearing from the 
crank-shaft. The speed of the engine is controlled by 
suitable device which is inserted by the action of the 
governor between the exhaust-lever and the stationary 
bracket when the normal speed is exceeded, thus hold- 
ing open the exhaust-valve and preventing any of the 
oil vapor and air from entering the cylinder during the 
suction period. 



Priestman Oil Engine. 

Fig. 74 represents this type of engine as made by 
Messrs. Priestman in the United States. 

The design of this engine is upon the " straight line" 
principle, and differs from the other engines herein 
described. In this engine, both the fly-wheels are ar- 
ranged to be inside of the main shaft bearings instead 
of at each side of the frame, as is usual. The makers 
claim great advantages for this design, inasmuch as the 
strain on the bearings is minimized. The crank-pin is 
placed between the two fly-wheels, the hub of each fly- 



VARIOUS ENGINES DESCRIBED. 



169 



wheel becoming the cheek of the crank. The oil-tank 
is placed in the bed of the engine ; an air pressure of 
five or six pounds is always maintained in this tank by 
means of the separate air-pump actuated from the 
cam-shaft by eccentric. The vaporizer spraying and 
igniting devices are fully described in Chapter I. 
The governor is driven by belt from the crank-shaft 




Fig. 74. 



and is of the centrifugal or pendulum type. The 
speed of the engine is controlled by suitable mechanism 
acting on the throttle-valve regulating the supply of 
oil and air entering the vaporizer. The air-inlet valve 
to the cylinder is automatic, the exhaust-valve being 
actuated by horizontal rod operated from a cam placed 



170 



OIL ENGINES. 



on the cam-shaft. This engine, it is claimed, requires 
little or no lubrication for the piston. 

The Mietz & Weiss Engine 

This engine is illustrated in Fig. 75. It works not, 
as all other engines described herein, on the Beau de 



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100 










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80 










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Indicator Card of the Priestman 



ZirTe> 



0.(9 coZ^eec^ 
Engine. 



Rochas cycle, but on the two-cycle principle — that is, 
an explosion is obtained in the cylinder at each revo- 
lution of the crank-shaft. The oil-tank is placed above 
the cylinder, and fuel is supplied to the engine partly 
by gravitation — the quantity injected, however, into the 



VARIOUS ENGINES DESCRIBED. 



171 



cylinder being regulated by small oil-supply pump. The 
governor is of the inertia type, and acts directly on the 
pump on the hit-and-miss principle. If the speed of 
the engine exceeds the standard number of revolutions, 
the governor causes the charge of oil which otherwise 
would enter the combustion chamber or cylinder to be 




Fig. 75. 



missed, and no explosion follows. The governor itself 
is actuated from the crank-shaft by eccentric and bell 
crank direct. The oil is vaporized in a hot chamber 
placed at the back of the cylinder, which is heated for a 
few minutes in starting by independent lamp; after- 
ward the heat created by constant compression main- 
tains the igniter at proper temperature automatically. 



172 



OIL ENGINES. 



The compression of the air is generated in the crank- 
chamber and the air is drawn into the cylinder at a 
slight pressure during each outstroke of the piston. 
The exhaust opening is automatically uncovered by the 
piston, the exhaust passage being made in the cylinder 
wall. As the piston travels toward the end of the 




Indicator diagram taken from the Mietz & Weiss Engine: 
diameter of cylinder, 12" ; stroke, 12" ; revolutions per 
minute, 300; scale, 100; B. H. P., 20. 



stroke, this passage is uncovered, and the produces of 
combustion are free to pass to the exhaust-pipe, while 
the piston travels to the end of the stroke and the first 
part of the return stroke until the port is again covered, 
when the compression period commences for the next 
explosion. These engines are now being made of from 
1 to 40 H. P. 



VARIOUS ENGINES DESCRIBED. 173 



Hornsby-Akroyd Oil Engine. 

Fig. 76 shows this engine as made by the De La 
Yergne Refrigerating Company, of New York. It is 
also made by the patentees at Grantham, England, and 
in France and Germany. 

The Hornsby-Akroyd engine is made in sizes of i^ 
to 50 H. P., all sizes being made of the horizontal type. 
The smaller sizes are made of the vertical type also, as 
shown at Fig. JJ, The fuel oil-tank is placed in the 
base of the engine and the fuel is delivered to the va- 
porizer by the small pump actuated from the cam- 
shaft by the lever which also actuates the air-inlet 
valve. The oil supply is raised to the vaporizer valve- 
box in regular quantities, but the oil is only allowed to 
enter the vaporizer to the required amount, the re- 
mainder of the oil flowing back to the tank through 
the by-pass valve which is regulated by the governor. 
Thus, if the speed of the fly-wheel exceeds the normal 
number of revolutions for which the engine is set, the 
governor mechanism opens the by-pass oil-valve, allow- 
ing part of the oil to flow back to the oil-tank, and ac- 
cordingly reduces the charge entering the vaporizer, 
and consequently the mean pressure for one or more 
explosions is reduced in the cylinder. The governor is 
of the Porter type, actuated by gearing from the cam- 
shaft. The method of vaporizing and igniting is fully 
described in Chapter I. Both air-inlet and exhaust 




:}0 



VARIOUS ENGINES DESCRIBED. 1 75 

valves arc actuated from the cam-shaft, these valves 




Fig. 77. 



being placed on the side of the engine. The air inlet 
in this type is different from the other engines de- 



176 



OIL ENGINES. 



scribed. In this case the air enters not through the va- 
porizer, but by means of separate valve-chamber. 




Diagram taken from Hornsby-Akroyd Engine: M. E. P., 48 
lbs. ; compression pressure, 50 lbs. ; maximum pressure, 
160 lbs. ; revolutions per minute, 185 ; cylinder, 18.5" 
diameter; 24" stroke; full load. 




Diagram taken from Hornsby-Akroyd Engine: Diameter of 
cylinder, 11"; stroke, 15"; M. E. P., 49.5 lbs.; compression 
pressure, 60 lbs.; revolutions per minute, 230; consump- 
tion of oil W. W., 150 F. 0.8 lbs. per B. H. P. per hour. 



VARIOUS ENGINES DESCRIBED. 177 



The Diesel Motor. 

Fig. 78 represents the Diesel motor as it is being 
built in the United States. It is of the vertical type, 
and is designed with closed crank-chamber, which 
forms the bed of the engine and to which the cylinder is 
bolted. The air-pumps which compress the air for the 
purpose of injecting the fuel at a greater pressure than 
that of compression in the main cylinder are placed 
inside of the crank-chamber and are actuated by rods 
from the main piston. The fuel oil-tank is placed at the 
bottom of the base on the one side and the air-pressure 
tanks are placed in the base plate. The air-inlet valve 
to the cylinder is automatic. The exhaust-valve, the 
fuel inlet-valve and the starting-valve are each actu- 
ated from gearing on a horizontal shaft, which is ac- 
tuated by two sets of bevel-gearing and spur-gearing 
from the crank-shaft, at half speed. 

The operation of the engine is on the ordinary 
Beau de Rochas or four-cycle principle, and is as 
follows : 

The receiver is charged with air at the desired maxi- 
mum pressure (about 600 pounds per square inch). 
This is accomplished the first time of starting by con- 
necting the receiver to a tank of liquid carbonic acid 
gas, from which the necessary pressure is obtained. 
The reservoir being once charged, the receiver is main- 
tained afterward constantly at a maximum pressure 
by the auxiliary air-pumps. 

To start the engine the piston is placed at the top of 



i 7 8 



OIL ENGINES. 



its stroke. The hand-starting lever is set so that the 
valve gear is on the two-cycle and the starting-valve 




Fig. 78. 



is opened at each revolution. The oil-pump is operated 
a few strokes by hand, whereby the space around the 



VARIOUS ENGINES DESCRIBED. 179 

stem of the fuel-valve is supplied with oil, this space 
being connected to the receiver by a small pipe. When 
communication between the starting-valve and the re- 
ceiver is made, by opening a cock by hand, the pressure 
from the receiver acts upon the piston and starts the 
latter downward. After several down strokes the 
operator shifts the lever and throws the fuel-valve into 
gear on the four-cycle. The momentum acquired car- 
ries the piston through an up stroke, and compresses 
the contents of the main cylinder to about 520 pounds 
per square inch, whereby they are heated to a tempera- 
ture of upward of 1000 Fahr. As the piston starts to 
make another down stroke by momentum, the fuel- 
valve opens, and the 600 pounds of air pressure in the 
receiver acting upon the fuel forces the latter into the 
heated contents of the cylinder, thereby causing com- 
bustion to occur, and power to be developed through- 
out the second down stroke ; the fuel-valve closes at 
about one-tenth of the stroke of the piston, so that the 
heat developed is applied with a high degree of expan- 
sion. On the next up stroke the exhaust-valve is 
opened, permitting the cylinder to exhaust itself 
against the atmosphere. During the next down stroke 
of the piston the inlet-valve connecting with the atmos- 
phere supplies the cylinder with air. This is com- 
pressed on the return stroke, and oil again introduced, 
and thence the operation of the engine proceeds regu- 
larly, the air-pump constantly supplying compressed 
air through the pipe to the space about the stem of 
the fuel-valve, which, being constantly connected to the 



i8o 



Oil engines. 



receiver, maintains the latter at the maximum pres- 
sure. The main cylinder and air-pumps are water- 
jacketed, and both the head of the main cylinder and 
those of the air pumps have cooling water circulating 
through them. Both the main and air cylinders are lu- 
bricated by splashing from the crank pit. The speed of 
the engine is governed by an ordinary centrifugal 
governor, which controls the length of the stroke of 




.v.. 



Indicator Card from the Diesel Motor. 



the fuel-pump. The engine is provided with two 
heavy fly-wheels placed each side of the main bearings. 
The distinctive feature of the Diesel engine is its high 
thermal efficiency, which is caused partly by the high 
pressure of compression of the air in the cylinder, 
but mainly by its slow and controlled combustion. 
When the fuel is injected, the cylinder volume is de- 
creased to about one-fifteenth of the total volume. 



VARIOUS ENGINES DESCRIBED. l8l 

This allows of a very much larger expansion of the 
heated gases as compared with engines of the explosive 
type. The Diesel engine has created great interest 
in engineering circles the world over, and many tests 
have been made of it. Professor Denton, of the 
Stevens Institute, Hoboken, N. J., in 1898 conducted 
a series of tests on this engine, and according to his 
report of those tests the consumption of fuel was 
0.534 pounds per B. H. P. per hour at full load, and at 
less than half load 0.72 pounds per B. H. P. per hour. 
This is equivalent to a thermal efficiency (on the 
I. H. P.) of 3J.7 per cent. 

The following is the heat-balance table as shown 
by Professor Denton : 

PER CENT. 

Heat of combustion accounted for by indicated 

power 37.2 

Removed by jacket 35.4 

Remainder 27.4 

Total heat of combustion 100.0 

The Diesel engine has just received the Grand Prix 
at the Paris World's Fair. 



Portable Engines. 

Oil engines of the portable type are made by nearly 
all the makers of the fixed horizontal types herein 
mentioned. 



1 82 



OIL ENGINES. 



The chief advantage of the portable oil engine as 
compared with the steam engine is the small bulk of 
fuel used and the small quantity of water required. 

The portable type, as to its method of working and 
its details, is usually made similar to the fixed type of 
engine, with the exception that it is constructed of 
lighter material. One of the most important features 




Fig. 79. 



in the portable type is that of the cooling-water 
apparatus. 

This device is differently constructed by the various 
makers. Fig. 79 illustrates the Hornsby-Akroyd type ; 
in this the circulating water is pumped rapidly from 
tank placed under the engine-bed through the cylinder 
water- jacket, and thence to the top of a vertical gradier 
work formed of wooden slats or boards, down which 



VARIOUS ENGINES DESCRIBED. 183 

the water trickles. Air is drawn upward through 
these wooden slats simultaneously ; this draft of air is 
caused by the exhaust gases which are discharged to 
the atmosphere above the gradier work, thus inducing 
a current of air through the gradier work in a way 
somewhat similar to the arrangement of the steam ex- 
haust of a locomotive. With this arrangement, only 
about 50 gallons of water are required to maintain the 
proper temperature of the cylinder. 

With other types of portable engines the water is 
cooled by being conducted over a series of horizontal 
trays, a current of cooling air being induced to pass 
over each of these horizontal trays. 



1 84 



OIL ENGINES. 



W 

e 

PQ 
525 

P 



w 
p 

CO 

W 
g 

3 
w 

o 

CO 

o 

> 

o 

CO 

e 

CO 

H 



> 

W 
PQ 



•uo S 
3> Il^puno -a 


00 in 


O 




<N CM 
r->. cno O co 

co co 




O in 
in 1^ r^- r^ 
co ^ in cm cm 

•to m in m 




CM Tfr 

Tj" CO 


in 

O 


•Iiapp^AY P™3 


O 00 


O 




co 

rt h mm n 

O CO M O O 
O CN W O 




O in co r^ cm 
O r^ cn r^co 

tt O CM CO M 




in 
r-»co 

CO CO 

in rf 


in 

CO 

O 

M 


•p;q 'saXSu^j, 


M O 






O O O O CO 

CO Tfr M 




in in coco ^f 
O co O co r» 




in 

COO 
CO CM 


O 
O 

O 

CM 


•03 # 


OCO 


O 




O CO 

O ^t CM CO 

^ t^ tJ- in 

cm r-> 




O in cm cm O 

mr>o coco 

O O m in 




OO 

Ti-o 
co cn 






•03 3> 

9uo^s^0B^g; 


r- Tf 


O 




O CO 
COCO CO m IT) 
HI f^CO COO 

co m 




in w 

CO O O Oco 

4 4 M CO 




in t^ 

CM CM 


O 

O 

O 


•03 V 


O CN 


X 

O 




CO O 

m tJ- co cm in 

CM COCO rj-O 
in ^ CO 




in in 

Tt CM OO O 
CO M O ^fco 

CM CO M CM 




O CO 

O CO 

M M 


CO 






•03 # 


t^ CM 


O 




rj- co CO O co 

M M O CM CO 

CO m M Tf M 




m 00 co co in 
co r^co co 

M CO CM CO CM 




CO M 

^•O 

^ co 


CO 


•03 auiSua 
s^3 jI9qduiB3 


Oco 






r-» Tto O co 

co r^ O co 

CO ^" M M 




ino co 

coco co 00 co 
r^ m cm as 

r^ m 




co O 

CO CM 



00 


•03 suiSug; 
SBf) |pqdra-B3 


CM M 
M <M 


O 




CO <st- O OO Tf 

r^« <n co 
co cm m r^- 

M CM M 




O CM 

O cm cs in 
in in ^f CM m 

O in m cm m 




co r- 

CM Tt 

•00 


in 
in 

in 


k -soag a9;ssoj3 


O 00 

M 1— 1 


O 




co 
OvOcO in 
in CM IS O O 

in CM O 




m O coo in 
i^ O O inco 

r^co m 




co O 

O CO 
Tt CO 




CO 


ENGINES. 


Diameter of cylinder, inches 

Stroke, inches 

Price of oil per gal. deliv- 
ered Edin., pence 


< 

3 

c 

PL, 

u 


Brake horsepower 

Total oil used per hour, lb. 

Oil per BHP per hour, lb. 

Cost per hour (total), pence 

" per BHP per hour, pence 


< 

2 

C 

pu, 

.-5 
< 


Brake horsepower 

Total oil used per hour, lb. 

Oil per BHP per hour, lb. 

Cost per hour (total), pence 

" per BHPper hour, pence 


< 

s 

C 
Ph 

e- 
W 
g 

3 


1 << 

CD J 

Cut 
^ u 

CD fl 
co C 

cc5 4- 
P c 


< 
s 

W 
g 

< 


'- 
13 

C 
P 
ID 
V 
Jh 



Cti 


u 









M 




























in 


N 










In \n ^ w in 




in 




-i C i> O 


•suos 






CO CI in I - 1 - 1 - 




'" 1 1 1 1 




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-V H*pa*io •>[ 


M M 




tj-vO t><» r^-co 




co in 1 1 1 1 




&$ '* ' 




H 




M .O CO <N 

m 




M 




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in 








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rr -1- 








— X in in 


•Uopp^AV pu-,: 


is 




co m ir> mO 




1 1 1 1 




5.SP r^ m , m 


^ilAV'-VMl'M 


•<hj- co 




m ci m O O O 

M M hi O CI M 




OOO » 1 1 1 




££ 2>m 














Q "* 








M MM 














CI 




CN 




Ji CO 00 








M in M CO O 




in co -J- 


£ M m in. 








O t^-co O M 




m r^ -rcc 




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•pri l saXSu«x 














O .... 




<?f in 




O Tfco in O co 




M O M O M 




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M 




M O M. CO O M 
CI m (N 




M M O CO M 




3 in 








O 




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f in in O O 








M 




co in 


£ M M rf Tt 


•03 3> 






in rf O COO 




in "to cc 




~i CO O O tN 


auo;s^o-Btf£ 


-»-o 




r>oo co t}- ci 




Oco O m -f- 




'/l In 




M 




M O ^t CM O m 




m inco m 




3 CO 

2£ 








O 








^ in in 








^j- CO 








£ M M CO 


•03 3> 






O co r^ m 




1 1 1 1 




- CO M , CO 


9uo;s^0Byg 


Tt" O 




t^-co r»co 00 




^ _H 1 1 1 1 




s vi 


i 






M O M CO H- 1 

M 




1-1 




3 M 








O 








n in in co 








co in in m 








£ M tN co 


•03 3> 






O in Tfr cm 




1 1 1 1 




-| co co 1 co 


auo^s^OBtg; 


^ M 




O O co m O in 




O M 1 1 1 1 




S " rN 1 




H 




m in in 

M 




M 




3 M 




O 




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CN 




+- O M 








M -+ 




Occ 




— x O in co 


•03 3? 


M 




M M 




in co in 


WM tN vn OO 


uosuaqda^s *H 


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-t M <N O CJ CO 




r-- m oco in 




c§ ^ ' 0* 




M 




M Tj" M M in 
CI 




M CO M 




Q 








CI 








•; 








in r^ co in 








£ M 


•03 auiSug; 






O COO CO 




"? 1 1 1 1 




— CO O 1 M 


s^o jT9qduiB3 


-t "t 




in t^. v-i in co 




Oco 1 1 1 1 




% 'CO' 1 M 




M 




M -1" M CO M M 
M MM 




1-1 




3 m 








O 




CO 


Ji O CO 








co co 




co r^ 


£ M tN M O 


•03 9uiSu3 






in 




in in m 1^. 


^ CO O O M 


ST3 IpqduiB3 


^ M 




r^ -f in oco 00 




M M OO xj" 




8 ' ' M 




co 




M O M CO CO M 
<N MM 




m m tJ- r^ m 




£ * 




m 




M 








^ CO M CO 









M 




M in h 




mX O in m 


•piq 


T* 




co in in in 




in m O r~>* 


^ _b£ rN m rN 


'•sojg A91SSOJ3 


coco 




m -j- co m tJ- in 




Ooo -tr^o 




a ^ 








MM MOM 




M M O CO M 










M MM 










1 : 

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M-l 
















.s 




















• 0) 




> 
















en 












£ 








0j 

! ° 




O 
CD 

cd 


£ 




c 

1) 

b 





- 


■f 




u 

CD 













en 

Oh 

a 


- 




DO 

g 
3 


en ^h 

M 3 

O ._> 

^ U 

as en 


C 

- 

w 

00 



B 

w 
M 

< 


'a; 
CD 

<„£ 


bib 

OJ 

CD <L 

M^ 


• 

.5 • 

CD 


w 

X 



M^ 
P 


.s 

u 


pressure, 
minute, m 

'■nower. . . . 


i 

1 


M 

Q 


oil used in 

y 

engine anc 
per hour, 




.2 5 
-t-» 


umference 
d on brake, 
ng balance 
load on bn 
olutions pe 
te horsepo 


Eh 

s 


neter of cy 
>ke, inches, 
n effective 
losions per 
cated hors( 
hanical eflfi 


►a 
O 


cription of 
:ific gravit 
al oil used, 
per I.H.P. 
11 B.H.P. 








CJ ^ 
m S 


1 


*7 


> 

CL 


2 




s 


c 






1 




■j 

-- 

P 


e 


u on 


- 





Table VII. — Calorific Power op Various Descriptions 
op Petroleum, Etc. (B. Redwood.) 



Description of Oil. 



Heavy Petroleum from 

West Virginia 

Light Petroleum from 

West Virginia 

Light Petroleum from 

Pennsylvania 

Heavy Petroleum from 

Pennsylvania 

American Petroleum.. 
Petroleum from Parma 
Petroleum from Pech- 

elbronn 

Petroleum from Pech- 

elbronn 

Petroleum from 

Schwabweiler 

Petroleum from 

Schwabweiler 

Petroleum from Han- 
over 

Petroleum from Han- 
over 

Petroleum from East 

Galicia 

Petroleum from West 

Galicia 

Shale Oil from Ardeche 
Coal Tar from Paris 

Gasworks 

Petroleum from Balak 

hany 

Light Petroleum from 

Baku 

Heavy Petroleum from 

Baku 

Petroleum residues 

from Baku Factories 
Petroleum from Java 
Heavy Oil from Ogaio 



> 

to?? 

ifl 


Ch 


emical Com- 
position. 


c 
u 

6 


£to 

X 

13-3 


G 

>> 

X 

C 


O.873 


83.5 


3-2 


O.8412 


84.3 


14. 1 


1.6 


O.816 


82.0 


14.8 


3-2 


O.886 
0.820 
O.786 


84.9 

83.4 
84.0 


13.7 
14.7 
13-4 


1.04 
1.9 

1.8 


O.912 


86.9 


11. S 


1-3 


O.892 


85.7 


12.0 


2-3 


O.861 


86.2 


13-3 


0.5 


O.829 


79-5 


13.6 


6.9 


O.892 


80.4 


12.7 


6.9 


0.955 


86.2 


11. 4 


2.4 


O.870 


82.2 


12.1 


5-7 


O.885 
O.9II 

I.O44 


85.3 
80.3 

82.0 


12.6 
11. 5 

7.6 


2.1 

(N. O.) 

8.2 

(O. S. N.) 

10.4 


0.822 


87.4 


12.5 


O.I 


O.844 


86.3 


13.6 


O.I 


O.938 


86.6 


12.3' 


I.I 


O.928 
O.923 
O.985 


87.1 
87.1 
87.1 


11. 7 
12.0 
10.4 


1.2 
O.9 
2.5 






O.OOO72 

O.OO0839 

O.OO084 

0.000721 
O.OOO868 
O.OOO706 

O.OOO767 

O.OOO793 

O.OO0858 

O.OO0843 

O.OOO772 

O.OO064I 

O.OO0813 

O.OOO775 
O.OO0896 

O.OOO743 

O.OO0817 

O.OOO724 

O.OO0681 

O.OOO9I 

O.OOO769 

O.OO08685 



c ^ 
B *£ 



*3 



14.58 10,180 
14.55 10,223 



14.05 

15-30 
14.14 
13.96 

14.30 

14.48 



9>9 6 3 

10,672 

9>77l 
10,121 

9,708 

10,020 



15.36 10,458 



14.23 

14.79 
12.24 

12.77 



16.40 

15-55 



15.02 
14-75 



10,085 

10,231 
9,046 

8.916 

11,700 

11,460 

10,800 

10,700 
10,831 
10,081 



\I.-».\\o ( i 



00 


co 


<o 
\o 


8 


N 


m 


o 


CO 


8 


m 


oyuopjj 


H 


(N 


o 


en 


vO 


c 


*C? 


- 


CN 


d 


5 


ON 


6 


o" 


:' 


cf 





d 













H 


H 


"" 




M 








- 


v3 


IO 


vS 


r>! 


if) 

en 


* 


" 


1 


m 


00 


CO 


00 


00 


CO 


&l 


o« 


O 


? 


73 'S vv -*-> 





d 


6 


C 


d 


6 


d 


d 


d 


d 


• 











o 














r<- 




vo 


00 




m 


CO 








r#> 





en 


4 


o 

en 


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ro 


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3 


cs 


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00 




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vO 


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tN 


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tfi+i-Mo 


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r-.oo 


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Speci 

Gravi 

Of Dis 
late at 


d 


d 


0* 




d d 


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6 














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co 


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1-1 


h 




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CN 


CN 


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vO 


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M 00 


vC 


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t-< 


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i cfl 

IS 3 

5 «5 


6 


H 


d 


6 


m d 


H 


CN 


H 


IO 


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CO -t 


co 


O CN OO 


(N 


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u-i <f! m^o lo 


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00 


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to 


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ciento 
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CN 




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O 


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cc 






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d 


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vO 


t^ vo 


CO 


f^ 


CN 





>o 


cn ■*■ 




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co 


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c 


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OQ 







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cr. 
















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t^ 


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CO 




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vd 








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m 











co 




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<u 
























p 


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H 


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o 




00 


C> 


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CN 




m 


t-^ 






a 







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CO 




t; - 


* 


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a 


co 






q 


CO 




H 











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rN 




m h 


00 




r^ 


z 





CN 


11 


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X 


co •*• 


4 





1 en 


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- 


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VC 


q 


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o 


co ■>*■ 


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oc 


00 


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DG 


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oo 


00 


00 


iription of 
)leum, etc 


cri to 

.— ro 


£ 8 : 


-x c . 




«J o . 


H 






cu : 


6 '. 


*1 


>! : 

p • 


03 CN 


o 

§1 

>,4 




D 

a 


- 


3 


os : 




•x - 










S > 2 


OS 

> 

C3 


-. 


- 


+J o 


to o 




- 




W 


h-3 


^ 


a: 


ffi 






» 



i88 



OIL ENGINES. 



Table IX. — Oil Fuel. (B. Redwood.) 



Locality. 



Russian 

Caucasian 

" (Novorossisk) 
Pennsylvanian. . . . 
American 



Fuel. 



Petrol, refuse 

Astatki 
Heavy Crude 



Refined 
Double " 
Crude " 



S P . 
Gr. at 
C. 



O.928 

0.9 

O.938 



O.886 



Chemical Compo- 
sition. 



Car- 
bon. 



87.I 

84.94 

86.6 

S4.9 

84.9 

86.894 

85:491 

80.583 

83.012 



gen. ! gen - 



•7 
.96 

•3 

.63 

•7 

.107 

.216 0.293 

.101J4.316 

.889 ! 3.099 



1.2 
1.2 

1.1 

1.458 

1.4 



Heating 
Power. 



Actual 
Calori- 
metric 
(lb. C. 
Units.) 



10,340 
IO,8oo 
10,328 



10,912 
11,045 
11,086 
11,094 



Calcu- 
lated 

(lb. C. 
Heat 

Units.) 



II,Ol8 
11,626 
1 1 , 200 



10,672 



Table X. — Calorific Power of Crude Petroleum. (B. Redwood.) 



Heavy Lubricating Oil, White Oak, ) 

Western Virginia f 

Light Illuminating Oil, Oil Creek, Pa. 

Oil from Dandang, Leo Rembang, \ 

Java. \ 

Light Oil from Baku 

Oil from Western Galicia 

44 " Eastern " 

" Parma 

11 " Schwab weiler 



Sp. Gr. 


Calories. 


O.873 


10,180 


O.816 


9>9 6 3 


O.923 


10,831 


O.884 


11,460 


O.885 


10,231 


O.870 


10,005 


O.786 


10,121 


O.861 


10,458 



INDEX. 



189 



INDEX. 



PAGE 

Abel oil-tester 90 

Actual horse-power 63 

Air compressing, horse- 
power required 125 

Air-compressor at differ- 
ent altitudes 131 

Air-compressors 123 

Air inlet choked 77 

Air-inlet valve.. 12, 2s, 39, 
57, 61, 78, 145, 165, 168 
Air-inlet valve, auto- 
matic 12, 77, 156 

Air-pump 13 

Air-receiver 177 

Air suction, noise of 122 

Air-suction pipe 78 

Air-supply (Campbell).. .. 151 
Air-supply (Crossley) .... 149 
Air-supply (Priestman).. . 152 

Asbestos 58 

Assembling oil engines... 53 
Atmospheric line 70, 71 

Balance weights 30 

Balancing crank-shaft. ... 27 
Balancing fly-wheel 30 



PAGE 

Balancing formula 29 

Bearings caps 55 

Bearings, crank-shaft. 42, 158 

Bearings, outside 161, 165 

Bearings, pressure on. . .42, 43 

Bearings, scraping in 54 

Beau de Rochas Cycle, 

15, 16, 76, 177 

Belt centres 115 

Belt, link 113, 115 

Belt, loose 115 

Belt, size of 116 

Benzine 1 

B. H. P., to calculate 65 

Brake, attaching 64 

Brake, horse-power. .. .63, 64 

Campbell, governing, 

13, 151, 168 
Campbell oil engine de- 
scribed 165 

Campbell starting 150 

Cams 2>7 

Cams, setting 60 

Circulating water-pipes... 97 
Clerk, Dugeld 87 



190 



INDEX. 



PAGE 

Clutches, friction 137 

Clutches, friction, advan- 
tages of 137 

Clutches, friction, B and 

C type 138 

Coal oil 1 

Combustion, bad 89, 153 

Combustion, complete 90 

Compression (Diesel) ... .6, 25 
Compression in crank- 
chamber 172 

Compression, increasing. .. 79 
Compression, irregular... 19 

Compression line 76, 78 

Compression pressure 25 

Connecting-rod bearings. . 56 

Connecting-rods 30 

Connecting-rods, diameter 33 
Connecting-rods, phosphor 

bronze 31 

Cooling surface 23 

Cooling water 19, 183 

Cooling water-tanks 96 

Copper ring 58 

Crank-pin 42, 168 

Crank-pin dimensions .... 42 

Crank-pin, size of 26 

Crank-shaft 25 

Crank-shaft, balancing. ... 27 
Crank-shaft bearings. .42, 158 
Crank-shaft, strength of . . 26 
Crossley engine described. 161 

Crossley governing. 164 

Crossley measuring device. 161 

Crossley starting 148 

Cundall engine described. .165 



PAGE 

Cycles, different, discussed 18 

Cylinder clearance 23 

Cylinder cover 23 

Cylinder lubricating oil... 140 

Cylinder lubricators 38 

Cylinder, two or more 

parts 57 

Cylinders, different types. 22 

Denton, Prof 181 

Developed horse-power... 63 

Diagram, analyzing 77 

Diagram, good working. . 76 

Diesel governing 180 

Diesel heat balance 181 

Diesel motor 6, 177 

Diesel starting 177 

Direct-connected engine 

and dynamo 117 

Direction of rotation, re- 
versing 154 

Distance-pieces 55 

Draining, water 104 

Dynamo fly-wheel 115 

Dynamometer or brake. ... 64 

Effective horse-power .... 63 
Efficiencies, thermal, com- 
pared 87 

Efficiency, increase of 83 

Efficiency, mechanical. .51, 86 

Efficiency, thermal 86 

Electric igniter 5, 15, 152 

Electric lighting plant, in- 
stallation of 113 

Engine ( Campbell) 165 



INDEX. 



191 



PAGE 

Engine (Cundall) 165 

Engine frame 42 

Engine (Hornsby-Akroyd) 140 
Engine (Mietz and Weiss) 170 

Engine, portable 181 

Engine (Priestman) 168 

Engines (Crossley) 161 

Engines driving dynamos. 1 11 
Engines, electric lighting. . 46 

Engines, knocking 159 

Engines, regulation of 117 

Engines, running, general 

remarks 153 

Engines, running, light... 145 

Erecting oil engines 53 

Exhaust bends 41 

Exhaust, choked 83 

Exhaust gases 90, 153 

Exhaust line 76, 83 

Exhaust silencers 100 

Exhaust temperature no 

Exhaust valve 13 

Exhaust valve, opening of. 76 

Exhaust washer 101 

Expansion line. 76, 81 

Explosion 20 

Explosive mixture 10, 15 

Filter oil 49, 146, 160 

Flashing point of oil 1 

Flashing point to test 90 

Flickering of incandescent 

lights 119 

Fluctuation in speed 37 

Fly-wheels 35, 119 

Fly-wheels, energy of 53 



PAGE 

Fly-wheels for dynamo. .115 
Fly-wheels, formula for. . . 37 
Fly-wheels, keying on.... 57 
Fly-wheels, peripheral 

speed 36 

Formulae 20, 21, 

26, 29, 33, 37, 40, 86, 125 

Foundations 113 

Four-cycle 15 

Frame, engine 42 

Friction-clutches 137 

Friction-clutches, advan- 
tages of 137 

Friction-clutches, B and 

C type 138 

Frost, provision for 99 

Fuel consumption. See 

Tables. 
Fuel-consumption test. ... 87 

Fuel injection 9, 180 

Fuel oil-tank 13, 49, 161 

165, 167, 169, 170, 173, 177 

Gases, exhaust 90 

Gear, skew 43 

Gear, spur 43, 160 

Gear, starting 21 

Governing (Campbell), 

13, 151, 168 
Governing ( centrifugal ) , 

15, 164, 165, 168 
Governing (Crossley) .... 164 

Governing devices 44 

Governing (Diesel) 180 

Governing (Mietz and 
Weiss) 171 



192 



INDEX. 



PAGE 
Governing (Priestman), 

15, 169 
Governor, hit-and-miss 

type 48 

Governor, hunting 148 

Governor parts, renewing. 160 
Governor, pendulum type.. 45 
Governor, Porter type. ... 173 

Gravitation (fuel) 12, 168 

Gravitation system 96 

Heat, utilization of waste. 107 

Heated air 11 

Heat balance 87 

Heat balance (Diesel) ... 181 

Heating lamp 8, 11, 12 

Heating lamp instructions. 141 
Horizontal and vertical 

types 50 

Hornsby-Akroyd, instruc- 
tions for running 140 

Hornsby-Akroyd, method 

of vaporizing 9 

Hornsby-Akroyd oil sup- 
ply 173 

Horse-power 63, 66 

Ice and refrigerating ma- 
chines 133 

Igniter, electric 5, 15, 152 

Igniter (Hornsby-Akroyd) 2 

Igniters 2, 23 

Igniters (flame) 2 

Igniters, heating 61 

Ignition 140 



PAGE 

Ignition (electric) 2, 7 

Ignition (high compres- 
sion) 2 

Ignition (hot surface) 2, 7, 10 
Ignition (hot tube), 

2, 7, 11, 148, 151 

Ignition line 76 

Ignition line, late 80 

Ignition line, too early... 79 

Ignition, regulating 80 

Ignition, retarding 81 

Impulse on piston 17 

Incandescent lights 116 

Incandescent lights, flick- 
ering of 119 

Indicated horse-power.... 66 
Indicator attaching to en- 
gine 71 

Indicator cock 66 

Indicator, Crosby 67 

Indicator diagram 48, 75 

Indicator diagram, light 

spring 88 

Indicator, diagram meas- 
uring 73 

Indicator in place 64 

Indicator, left or right 

hand 70 

Indicator reducing motion. 71 

Indicator springs 69 

Ingredients for founda- 
tions 113 

Instructions for running 

Hornsby-Akroyd 140 

Instructions for running 
oil engines 139 



INDEX. 



193 



PAGE 

Junk rings 55 

Knocking in engine 159 

Leakage in crank-chamber 19 
Leakage of piston-rings. 61, 78 

Leakage of valves 78 

Leakage of water into cyl- 
inder 63 

Lights, incandescent 116 

Line, atmospheric 70, 71 

Line, compression 76, 78 

Line, exhaust 76, 83 

Line, expansion 76, 81 

Link belt 113, 115 

Loose belt 115 

Lubricating cylinder oil . . . 140 

Lubricators, cylinder 38 

Lubricators, sight feed... 38 

Measuring device (Cross- 
ley) 161 

Mechanical efficiency. ..51, 86 

M. E. P 21, 67, 81 

M. E. P. gas and gasoline 

engines 22 

M. E. P. regulated 47 

Method of vaporizing 

(Crossley) 11 

Method of vaporizing 

(Campbell) . 12 

Method of vaporizing 

(Hornsby-Akroyd) ... 9 
Method of vaporizing 

(Priestman) 13 



PAGE 

Method of governing 

(Campbell) 168 

Method of governing 

(Diesel) 180 

Method of governing 

(Mietz and Weiss) . . . 171 
Method of governing 

( Priestman) 169 

Mietz and Weiss engine 

described 170 

Mietz and Weiss engine 

governing 171 

Mixture oil, vapor and air. 14 
Motor, Diesel 6, 177 

Norris, William 26 

Oil cylinder, lubricating. .140 
Oil engines, driving dy- 
namos ill 

Oil engines, instructions 

for running 139 

Oil filter 49, 146, 160 

Oil inj ection 9 

Oil inlet 12 

Oil measurer (Crossley).. 11 

Oil-pump 9, 143, 165 

Oil-pump, testing 147 

Oil supply (Campbell) ... 151 
Oil supply (Crossley) .... 164 

Oil supply (Diesel) 177 

Oil supply (Hornsby-Ak- 
royd) 173 

Oil supply, limiting 89 



194 



INDEX. 



PAGE 

Oil supply (Mietz and 

Weiss) 170 

Oil-supply pipes... 57, 61, 146 
Oil supply (Priestman) . . . 15 

Oil-supply pump 171 

Oil-supplying apparatus... 51 

Oil, viscosity of 93 

Otto cycle 15, 76 

Otto patent 19 

Paraffin (Scotch) 1 

Petroleum 1 

Petroleum (crude) 2, 20 

Petroleum. See Tables. 

Pipe, air-suction 78 

Piston 33, 153 

Piston, fitting 55 

Piston lubrication, 

50, 158, 170, 180 
Piston-rings, 

34, 55, 56, 154, 158, 159 

Piston speed 34 

Piston, taking out 158 

Planimeters 72 

Planimeters, directions for 

using 74 

Plants, pumping 131 

Portable engines 181 

Portable engines, construc- 
tion of 182 

Portable engines (Horns- 

by-Akroyd) 182 

Port openings 39 

Pressure of explosion. . . . . 20 
Pressure on bearings. . .42, 43 
Priestman engine 168 



PAGE 

Priestman, governing. . 15, 169 

Priestman, starting 152 

Priming cup (Crossley) . .148 

Processes in cylinder 59 

Producer gas plant 20 

Products of combustion. . . 18 

Pump, oil-supply 49 

Pump, water-circulating. . 99 

Pumping plants . . 131 

Pumps, efficiency of 133 

Pumps, horse-power re- 
quired 132 

Refrigerating machines. ..133 
Refrigerating machines, 

horse-power required.. 136 
Refrigerating machines, 

rating of 133 

Regulation of engines 117 

Reversing direction of ro- 
tation 154 

Rhumkorfr coil 5 

Rings, junk 55 

Rings, piston, 

34^ 55« 56, 154. 158, 159 
Running oil engines 139 

Salt water, cooling 100 

Self-starter 105 

Self-starter (Hornsby-Ak- 

royd) 105 

Silencers, exhaust 100 

Simplicity of construction. 21 

Single cycle 16 

Skew gear 43 

Specific gravity . I 



INDEX. 



195 



PAGE 

Speed counter (Hill) 85 

Speed, regulation of 154 

Sprayer (Priestman) 13 

Spray holes 147 

Spur gear 43, 160 

Starting 11 

Starting (Campbell type). .150 
Starting (Crossley type) . .148 
Starting (Diesel motor).. 177 
Starting, difficulties of. 61, 143 

Starting gear 21 

Starting (Hornsby-Ak- 

royd) 142 

Starting (Priestman type). 152 

Starting valve 179 

Straight line principle. ... 168 
Suction line 76 

Tachometers 83 

Tachometers, portable 84 

Tank 49 

Tank, fuel consumption. . 64 

Tank, water 141 

Temperature of cooling 

water 81, 100 

Temperature, exhaust. ... no 
Testing compression. ..... 61 

Testing flash-point 90 

Testing fuel consumption. 87 

Testing new engine 59 

Testing, object of 59 

Testing oil-pump 147 

Testing sprayer 61 

Testing water-jackets 63 

Thermal efficiency. . . .86, 180 
Two-cycle system. .15, 44, 170 



PAGE 

Two-cylinder engines 51 

Valve, air and exhaust, 

39, 57, 145, 158, 177 

Valve, back pressure 146 

Valve by-pass 45, 173 

Valve closing-springs 39 

Valve exhaust opening. ... 60 

Valve, lift of 78 

Valve mechanisms 43 

Valve, overflow, oil 146 

Valve starting 179 

Valves 21, 41 

Valves and valve-boxes. .. 38 
Vapor inlet-valve. .11, 12, 150 
Vaporizer, advantages of . . 8 
Vaporizer (Campbell) .... 5 
Vaporizer (Crossley) . .11, 150 
Vaporizer, difficulties of. . 9 
Vaporizer heated by ex- 
haust 14 

Vaporizer, heating. . . .61, 152 
Vaporizer (Hornsby-Ak- 

royd) 9 

Vaporizer (Priestman)... 13 

Vaporizer 7 

Vaporizer, to heat 141 

Vaporizer valve-box 145 

Vaporizer, water-jacketed. 141 

Vertical engines 51 

Vibrator 6 

Viscosity of oil 93 

Washer, exhaust 101 

Waste heat, utilization of.. 107 
Water-circulating pipes... 97 



196 



INDEX. 



PAGE 

Water-circulating pump. . . 99 

Water cooling 183 

Water draining 104 

Water in exhaust-pipe. . ..104 
Water-jackets 57, 180 



PAGE 

Water, salt, cooling 100 

Water space 23 

Water-tanks, capacity of.. 96 
Water-tanks, cooling. .96, 141 
Worm-gear 43, 160 



LUNKENHEIMER OlL-MlXER OR GENERATOR VALVE. 

This oil-feeder, applicable alike to both kerosene and 
gasoline, is quite simple and readily attached to engine. 
It is automatic, and feeds the oil in a thoroughly atom- 
ized state, but does not heat same to the vaporizing 
point. If the engine is to operate with gasoline, warm- 
ing the in-coming air is advisable. 

If kerosene or heavy oils are used, the mixer should 
be arranged so that the fresh air drawn in through 
opening C (see cuts) opens disc E. This allows oil to 
flow in through passage K, where, meeting the rapidly 
entering air, it is thoroughly broken up into a spray, 
and passing on enters the heater or vaporizer, and from 
thence to cylinder. 




Disc E is closed by spring M, the seat being very 
wide, it covers passage-way K, automatically shutting 
off the oil. 

The regulation is adjusted by means of the needle- 
valve F and pointer G. 

The mixer, while one of the newest, seems to em- 
body every requirement of a device for this purpose, 
and could no doubt be profitably employed by many 
more builders of engines of this class. 









ITT TFT 
B. e Lunkenheimer Co. 

General Offices and Factory 
CINCINNATI, O., U. S. A. 

BRANCHES 

New York London 

26 Cortlandt St. 35 Great Dover St. 

Manufacture a Complete Line of 

ACCESSORIES 

FOR 

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Generator Valves 

Globe Angle and Cross, 

Stop and Needle Valves 

Check Valves 

Stop Cocks 

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Drain Cocks 

Special Fittings 

Bearing Oilers, Single or 

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Special Fittings made to order for 
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Sena for Complete Catalogue 









Lubrication 



Proper lubrication is one of the most vital points in 
the operation of any piece of machinery, and particu- 
larly so with the Gas or Oil Engine. There are special 
requirements to be considered, and too much care 
cannot be exercised in the selection of an oil to meet 
them. An oil which has been adapted and found sat- 
isfactory for other kinds of engines may not be at all 
suited for the Oil Engine. 

The action of heat on the lubricating oil must be 
taken into consideration, and the burning point of the 
oil be high enough to withstand the heat generated 
under the highest speed. The viscosity should be such 
that so great a reduction will not take place under heat 
as to impair the lubrication. Inasmuch as most animal 
oils contain matter which liberates injurious acids under 
the action of heat, it is essential that compounded oils 
be avoided as dangerous. 

The Columbia Lubricants Company have made a 
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For further information on this and other specially 
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Columbia Lubricants Company 

121 cMaiden Lane - - 3(e<rv York City 



QVER SIX THOUSAND 
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Ice and Refrigeration 

ILLUSTRATED 

A Monthly Review of the Ice, Ice Making, Refrigerating, 
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Compcnd of Mechanical Refrigeration 

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A machine is only as strong as its weakest part 

An explosive engine is reliable only so far as 
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A Large Number of 

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SALES DEPARTMENT 
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THE PRIESTMAN 




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Jump-Spark Ignition 

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WE STARTED-OTHERS FOLLOW 

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The AMERICAN THOMPSON 
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26 CORTLANDT STREET, NEW YORK 



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THE WM. POWELL CO. 

CINCINNATI, OHIO 



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Makers of High Grade Specially Balanced Oil and Gas Engine Dynamos 

Write for circular, prices, etc. 




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98 West Jackson Boulevard, Chicago, 111. 



NEW STANDARD 

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CONSISTING OF 

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New Standard Jump Spark Coil. 12.00 

New Standard Insulated Cam- 
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New Standard Double Porcelain 

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Inventor and Sole Mfr. 
42 Vesey Street = New York City 



We also manufacture other good and 
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P. T. Motors will run on the vapors of any 
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ALVA T. HILL 

432 4th Ave., - = Detroit, HICHIQAN 

"B & C" ACTION CLUTCH PULLEY 

SPECIALLY DESIGNED FOR 

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SPON & CHAMBERLAIN, 

12 CORTLANDT STREET, NEW YORK, U. S. A. 



AUTHORIZED AHERICAN EDITION OF 

POLYPHASE 
ELECTRIC CURRENTS 

AND 

ALTERNATE-CURRENT MOTORS 

By S. P. THOMPSON, D.Sc, B.A., F.E.S. 

Second and Enlarged Edition, with Twenty-four Colored Illus 
trations and Eight Folding Plates. 



Contents of Chapters. 
I. Alternating Currents in General. 
II. Polyphase Currents. 

III. Combination of Polyphase Circuits and Economy of Copper. 

IV. Polyphase Generators. 

V. Examples of Polyphase Generators. 
VI. Structure of Polyphase Motors. 
VII- VIII. Graphic Theory of Polyphase Motors. 
IX. Analytical Theory of Polyphase Motors. 
X. Example3 of Modern Polyphase Motors. 
XI. Hints on Design. 
XII. Mechanical Performance of Polyphase Motors. 

XIII. Single-Phase Motors. 

XIV. Polyphase Transformers and Phase Transformation. 
XV. Measurement of Polyphase Power. 

XVI. Polyphase Equipment of Factories. 

XVII. Distribution of Polyphase Currents from Central Stations. 
XVIII. Polyphase Electric Railways. 

XIX. Properties of Rotating Magnetic Fields. 
XX. Early Development of the Polyphase Motor. 

Appendix.— I. Alternate Current Calculations : the Symbolic Me- 
thod. II. Schedule of Polyphase Patents. Index List of Plates: — 
I. Two-phase Generator at Chevres. II. Three phase Inductor 
Alternator. III. Two-phase Motor of Six Horse-power. IV. Three- 
phase Motor of One Hundred Horse-power. V. Three-phase Motor 
of Twenty Horse-power. VI. Core-Disks of Three-Phase Motor. 
VII. Two phase Motor of One Thousand Horsepower. VIII. Lo- 
comotive of the Jungfrau Railway. 

508 rages, 358 Illus., Svo, Cloth, $5.00} 



THEIR CONSTRUCTION, OPERATION AND APPLICATIONS, WITH 

CHAPTERS, ON 

Batteries, Testa Goits and Roentgen Radiography 
By H. S. NORRIE. 



Contents of Chapters. 

Chapter I. — Coil Construction. II.— Contact Breakers. III. — Ir> 
sulations and Cements. IV. — Condensers. V. — Experiments. VI.— 
Spectrum Analysis. VII. — Currents in Vacuo. VIII. — Rotating Ef- 
fects. IX. — Gas Lighting and Ozone Production. X. — Primary Bat- 
teries and Electric Light Currents. XL — Storage Batteries. XII.— 
Tesla and Hertz Effects. XIII. — Roentgen Rays and Radiography 
With 57 new illustrations. 

List of Illustrations. 
Fig. i. Section of Coil. 2. Insulating Tube Ends. 3. Sectional 
Winding. 4. Section Winding First Method. 5. Section Winding 
Second Method. 6. Proportional Diagram of Coil. 7. Section 
Winder, End View. 8. Section Winder, Face View. 9. Assembly 
of Coils. 10. Polechanging Switch ir. Contact Breaker, Simple. 
12. Contact Breaker, Imperfect Form. 13. Contact Breaker, 
Superior Form. 14. Spottiswoode Breaker. 15. Polechanging. 16. 
Leyden Jar. 17. Plate Condenser. 18. Arrangement of Condenser 
Plates. 19. Condenser Charging, First Method. 20. Condenser 
Charging. Second Method. 21. Spark between Balls. 22 Short 
Spark between Balls. 23. Sparkling Pane. 24. Luminous Design. 
25. Electric Brush. 26. Spectrum — Solar. 27. Spectroscope and Coil. 
28 Simple Air Pump. 29. Geissler Air Pump. 30. Sprengel Air 
Pump. 31. Fluorescent Bulbs. 32. Solution Tube. 33. Ruby 
Tube— Crookes. 34. Iridio-platinum Tube — Crookes. 35. Revolving 
Wheel. 36. Tube Holder. 37. Side View of Wheel. 38. Geissler 
Tubes. 39. Triangle on Disc. 40. Maltese Cross on Disc. 41. 
Gas Lighting Circuit. 42. Ozone. 43. Grenet Cell. 44. Fuller 
15. Gethin's Cell. 46. Lead Plate. 47. Wooden Separator. 48. 
Charging with Rheostat. 49. Charging with Lamps. 50. Hydro- 
meter. 51. Hertz Resonator. 52. Tesla Circuit. 53. Tesla Cut 
Out. 54. Tesla Cut Out Top Plan. 55. Tesla Coil. 56 Crookes 
Tube. 57. Roentgen Circuit. 




^Wmm 



